
Class _L^_aT__ 
Book .Ij lA( r 
Goj5yrigM]^?__La-^^ 



COF^OUGHT DEPOSm 



MACE'S 
SCHOOL HISTORY 

of the 

UNITED STATES 




THE WASHINGTON PORTRAIT 

)inS portrait of Geori^e ll'as/iins^ton is called 
the " Gibbs-Channin^" portrait, -was painted 
by Gilbert Stuart, and is now (/QO^) owned by 
and in the possession of Samuel P. Avery of 
New York City. It is the representative picture of 
Washington s first sitting to Gilbert Stuart, i7i Sep- 
tember, I7g^> this sitting having originated the first 
type of II 'ashing ton ' s face. This painting was sold by 
Stuart to Col. George Gibbs of New York, his per- 
sonal friend, with the statement that it was on the 
easel while Washington was sitting, a7id worked upon 
from. life. Mr. Gibbs sold it to Mrs. William Ellery 
Channing {his sister), who, in turn, gave it to Dr. 
William F. Channing. The second sitting of Wash- 
ington, April, I/QO, is the "Athenaum" head, now 
{igo^) deposited in the Bostoft Museian of Fine Arts. 
This Gibbs- Channing portrait is the first Washington, 
and has been only ten times reproduced. Through the 
courtesy of Mr. Avery it is here reproduced as a fron- 
tispiece in Mace's School History of the United States. 



/ 




A 






SCHOOL HISTORY 






of the 






UNITED STATES 






WILLIAM H. MACE 






Formerly Professor of History in Syracuse University 
Author of "Method in History" and 
"A Working Manual of 
American History" 






Ilhcstrated by 






HOMER W. COLBY, H. W. DIETZLER, 
and DENMAN FINK 






Portraits by 






JACQUES REICH 






^ 






RAND, M9NALLY & COMPANY 






Chicago New York London 











Copyright, IO04, 

2y William H. Mace 

.1// rights reserved 

Copyright, 1^22, 
By William H. Mace 

Revised Edition 



^" 



B 






t 








AUG 19-? 

©CI.AOHI'44 9 *tN^ 



I>-22 



THE PREFACE 

ELEMENTARY text-books on History should be so 
simple and transparent in style that the child can 
come into immediate possession of the meaning- 
without overcoming obstacles in the shape of strange words 
and involved sentences. 

It has been the aim of the writer to fulfill this condition. 
At the same time an attempt has been made to have the 
narrative vivid in order that the pupil may not escape the 
impression that American History is an interesting move- 
ment, and that, whether in cooperation or in collision, men 
are always struggling to attain great ends. This quality 
seizes upon the human and dramatic feelings of the child and 
holds his interest in the subject. As a result the people who 
inhabit the world of history are made akin to those who are 
in action in the real world around him. To encourage this 
interest and to enable the pupil to enter more fully into the 
spirit of the past, important and typical events have been 
frequently made to stand out vividly by a somewhat full 
description. To impress great historical scenes upon the 
mind of the young is as important as to paint them on canvas. 
As a further stimulus to the sympathetic and constructive im- 
agination, and as an appeal to the higher tastes, ten full-page 
illustrations in colors have been introduced. These illustrate 
ten of the most dramatic or important events in American 
History and serve as historical milestones to the pupil. 

The grouping of events into series and of a number of 
series into periods, on the basis of the common movement of 
which they were a part, is one of the most important helps 
to a right understanding of History. Hence, although the 
chronological order has been followed in arranging events in 
natural series, no event foreign to a particular series has been 
permitted to break up the continuity because it happened 

(V) 



vi Maces School History of the United States 

to occur between two events of a series. Such events are, 
in turn, placed in a series of their own. Holding- to this 
natural connection not only stimulates the understanding but 
strengthens the memory by the law of association. The 
great majority of dates in the text are not even to be called 
for in recitation, to say nothing of committing them to 
memory. They are simply to be observed by the pupil in 
order to help make the impression of an orderly succession 
in history. 

To enable the pupil to see more clearly that any event has 
a meaning far beyond that which appears on the surface, 
the period and sub-period headings have been so carefully 
worked out, and so placed as page headings, that he will 
carry in mind the central and subordinate ideas of entire 
periods while studying particular events. This arrangement 
encourages the pupil to read a larger meaning into events 
than is possible by any other plan. The entire arrangement 
and presentation of material is based, as far as practical, upon 
the ideas suggested in the author's work on Method in History. 

The Study Questions are not intended to take the place 
of the teacher's questions. They may be used or omitted 
altogether. Some pupils will use them because of ability or 
interest in the subject, while others will have neither time 
nor ability. The Collateral Reading may be treated in the 
same way, but because most of the books are interesting to 
children, and because exact references are given to page 
and volume, it is believed that great interest can be created 
and great profit derived by assigning topics to be read and 
reported orally or in writing. In order to emphasize the 
ideas of growth and continuity as applied to History, and in 
order to present an uninterrupted story in the text, the Study 
Questions and the Collateral Reading are placed, with the 
other reference matter, in the Appendix. 

The experience and scholarship of a number of public 
school and college men have been freely drawn upon in the 
preparation of this work. But the author must make special 
and grateful acknowledgment to Professor Edwin P. Tanner, 



TJie Preface vii 

of AdclpJii College, two years his associate in American 
History, for his scholarly and invaluable services. The proof 
of the entire work has profited by the critical readings of 
P. P. Claxton, Professor of the Sciejice a7id Art of Teaching in 
the University of Tennessee ; F. D. Losey, Associate Professor 
of English in Syracuse University ; W. H. Scott, Principal of 
the Porter Grammar School, Syracuse, Nezu York; General 
H. V, Boynton, of Washington, D. C; Franklin L. Riley, 
Professor of History in the University of Mississippi ; John 
Spencer Bassett, Professor of History in Trinity College, 
Durham, North Carolina ; Maurice Francis Egan, Professor 
of English Language and Literature and Dean of tJie Faculty 
of Philosophy, of the Catholic University of America, Wash- 
ington, D. C. ; William MacDonald, Professor of History in 
Brozvn Utiiversity, Providence, Rhode Island ; F. W. Shep- 
hardson, Associate Professor of American History in the Uni- 
versity of Chicago ; and A. R. Sabin, Principal of tJie Audubon 

School, Chicago. 

William H. Mace. 
Syracuse University, 




THE TABLE OF CONTENTS ■ 

PAGE 

The Preface ' v 

A List of the Maps xii 

A List of the Plates xiii 

Ci)c perioB of ^DiecoDerp anU ©jrploratton (1492-4607) 

How Europe Found America i 

Europe Needs a New Route to India i 

Columbus Seeks a New Route aud Finds a New World ... 6 

Where Europe Planted Institutions 13 

The Foundation of Claims to Territory 13 

The Indians ' 21 

Cbe IJcrioU of Colonisation (16071760) 

The Colony ok Virginia 25 

Period of Experiment (1607-1616) 25 

Getting a Permanent Foothold (1616-1624) 31 

Virginia as a Royal Province (1624-1652) 35 

Virginia Under the Commonwealth (1652-1660) ...... 37 

The King's Supporters Again in Power (1660-1690) 38 

The Other Southern Colonies 41 

Maryland (1634) 41 

The Carolinas (1653 and 1663) 45 

Georgia (1733) 49 

Massachusetts 52 

The Pilgrims Settle Plymouth (1620) 52 

The Great Puritan Migration Founds the Bay Colony (1630- 1640) 57 

Growth in Politics and Religion (1631-1639) 59 

Beginnings of Education .63 

Outside Dangers and Their Consequences (1635-1C89) .... 64 

The Other New England Colonies 69 

Maine and New Hampshire (1630) 69 

Connecticut and New Haven (1635) 70 

Rhode Island (1636) 75 

(viii) 



TJie Tabic of Contents ix 

PAGE 

New York (1609-1 700) 77 

Holland Plants a Colony in America (1613) 77 

The People of New Netherland Want Self-Government 

(1630-1664) 80 

Progress Toward Self-Government (1664-1691) 83 

The Other Middle Colonies 85 

Delaware (1638) 85 

New Jersey (1664) 86 

Pennsylvania Becomes a Home for the Persecuted (1681) ... 89 

Colonial Life (i 700-1 750) 95 

The People g5 

Home Life and Pastimes 102 

Schools, Books, and Newspapers 107 

Religious Belief and Customs no 

Industry and Travel 113 

The Struggle for North America 117 

The Growth of French Power 117 

Preparatory Struggles (1689-1748) 121 

The Final Struggle (i 754-1 763) 124 

The Results of the War 133 

Cde perioU of X\t KeDolutian (17604789) 

Separation from England and Union Among the Colonies (i 760- 1789) 1 36 
General Causes of the Conflict 136 

The Struggle for the Rights of Englishmen (i 760-1776) .... 139 

The Question of Taxation (i 765-1774) 139 

Parliament Punishes the Colonies (1774) 151 

The Fighting Begins (1775) 155 

The Struggle for the Rights of Man (1776-1783) 162 

The Movement for Independence (1775-1776) 162 

The Campaigns for the Possession of the Middle States(i776-i778) 165 

Winning Our First Western Boundary (1778-1779) 180 

Irregular Warfare on Land and Sea (1778-1779) 183 

Overrunning the Far South (1778-1780) 186 

Winning Back the South (1780-1781) 188 

The Struggle for a Permanent Union (1775-1789) 198 

The Country Tries State Sovereignty (1781-1785) 198 

Working for a Stronger Government (1785-1787) 199 

The Constitutional Convention (1787) 207 

The People Endorse the Constitution (1787-1788) 2H 



X Maces School History of the United States 

CI)e pcrioU of J^ational (Srototb (1789=1360) 

PAGE 

The Rule OF THE Federalist Party ( 1 789-1800) 214 

Our Country when Washington Became President (1789) . . . 214 

Origin of Political Parties (1 789-1 794) 221 

Beginnings of Our Foreign Policy ( 1 793-1 796) 227 

The Decline of the Federalists ( 1 796-1800) 232 

The Rule OF THE Republican Party (1801-1824) 235 

Jefferson's New Policy (1800-1806) 235 

A Struggle for Commercial Freedom (1S01-1812) 241 

The Second War for Independence (1812-1815) 247 

Immediate Results of the War 255 

A New Era (1815-1850) 257 

The Signs of a New National Life (1815-1830) 257 

The Beginnings of a National Literature 264 

Foreign Relations 267 

Old Parties with New Names (1824-1840) 268 

Industrial and Social Development 279 

C!)c perioU of Sectional Dispute anU ^ar (1830-1865) 

The Growth OF Sectional Feeling (1830-1861) 295 

Growing Differences Between the Free and the Slave States 

(1820-1S35) 295 

The Struggle for More Slave Territory (1835-1848) : War with 

Mexico (1840-1848) 303 

Shall the New Territory be Slave or Free ? (1846-1854) .... 310 

Drifting Rapidly Apart (1854-1860) 321 

Secession and Conciliation (1861) 333 

The War for the Union (1861-1865) 337 

The Beginnings of the War (1861) 337 

Foreign Nations and the Blockade of Southern Ports (1861-1863) 344 
Campaigns for the Western Border States and the Mississippi 

(1861-1S62) 343 

Blow and Counter Blow in the East (1862-1863) 354 

Grant Opens the Mississippi and Relieves Chattanooga 

1862-1863) 362 

The Effect of the War on Politics (1861-1864) 366 

The Final Campaigns (1864-1865) 369 

Immediate Results of the War 379 

Cf)e perloU of ConsoIiHatton anD (!^|:pan£(ion (1 865- 191 9) 

Reconstruction UK the Seceueu States (1865-1872) 386 

Lincoln and Johnson's Ideas of Reconstruction 386 

The Congressional Plan of Reconstruction 389 



Till' Table of Contoits xi 

PAGE 

The Congressional Plan of Rceonstruetion 389 

New Political Problems (1872- 1900) 394 

Foreign Relations (i 865-1 872) '. 394 

Old Parties Divide and New Ones Rise (1872- 1 896) .... 396 

A New Industrial Era (1870-1904) 415 

The New Northwest (i 870-1 890) 415 

The New South (i 872-1904) 428 

New Inventions and Industrial Problems (i860- 1904) . . . 434 
Growth in the Means of Edueation (i860- 1904) 442 

The Beginnings of Expansion (1898-1919) 446 

The War with Spain (1898) 446 

Later Political Developments (i 899-1914) 456 

Recent Events (1914-1919) 471 

THE APPENDIX 

Study Questions and Collateral Reading xv 

The "Mayflower" Compact li 

The Declaration of Independence li 

Provisions of the Constitution Iv 

The Constitution of the United States Ivii 

The Fourteen Points Ixxi 

The Covenant of the League of Nations Ixxii 

A Table of the States and Territories Ixxxi 

Date of Admission, Area, Population, etc. 

Growth of the United States Ixxxii 

The Increase in Town and City Poi)ulation 

Gross Area of the United States Ixxxii 

Facts about Our Dependencies Ixxxii 

A Table of the Presidents Ixxxiii 

Some Statistics of the United States and Territories . Ixxxiv 
Representation in Congress, School Statistics, etc. 

A Pronouncing Index Ixxxv 

The Index Ixxxviii 



A LIST OF THE MAPS 

PAGE 

Old Trade Routes to India 2 

Portuguese Voyages to India 5 

The Toscanelli Map, 1474. 7 

The Four Voyages of Columbus 10 

Early Settlements in Virginia 21 

The Distribution of Indian Families and Tkiises (in colors) Fachiq- 24 

London and Plymouth Companies 26 

Territory Claimed by Virginia Under the Charter of 1609 .... 30 

The Maryland Colony . 44 

The Carolina and Georgia Colonies 46 

North America in 1650: Showing Clai.ms of Spain, France, Eng- 
land, Holland, and Sweden (in colors) Facitig 52 

The Settlements Along the New England Coast 60 

The Region Ruled by Sir Edmund Andros . . 69 

The Connecticut and New Haven Colonies 72 

Early Settlements in Rhode Island and the Providence Plantations 76 

New Netherland and the Five Nations 78 

East and West Jersey and the Surrounding Colonies 87 

The Early Settlements in Pennsylvania 91 

French Explorations and Posts 120 

North America in 1750: Showing the Conflicting Spanish, 

French, and English Claims (in colors) Facing 124 

Fort Duquesne and Its Approaches 127 

The European Possessions, 1765 : Result of the French and 

Indian War (in colors) Facing 133 

The Colonies During THE Revolution (in colors) . . . Facing 154 

A Map of Boston and Vicinity 155 

The Military Movements in the Middle Colonies, 1 776-1 77S . . . 166 

The Campaigns Around Philadelphia i?i 

Burgoyne's Campaign 173 

The George Rogers Clark Expedition 182 

Campaigns in the South During the Revolution 189 

The War in Virginia 192 

Siege of Yorktown 195 

The United States at the Close of the Revolutionary War (in 

colors) Facing 196 

The Northwest Territory 205 

The United States After the Louisiana Pukchase, 1S03 (in 

colors) Facing 238 

(xii) 



A List of Maps and Plates xiii 

PAGE 

The Lewis and Clark Expedition 239 

The United States in 1821: Admission of States, Missouri Com- 
promise, AND Florida Purchase (in colors) .... Facing 250 

The Texas Boundary Dispute 305 

The Oregon Boundary Dispute (in colors) Facing 306 

Territory Gained by the Treaty of Peace, 1848 311 

Changes in Slave and Free Territory, 1820-1850 (in colors) Facing 318 
Slave and Free States After the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 1854 

(in colors) Facing 322 

Union and Confederate States, 1861 (in colors) .... Facitig 34c. 

Campaigns for the Western Border States 351 

The Peninsular Campaigns 356 

The Campaign Around Vicksburg 363 

Territorial Growth of the United States Since 1776 (in colons) 

Facing 386 

The Alaskan Purchase of 1867 395 

The Hawaiian Group of Islands 413 

Principal Railroads of the United States, 1904 (in colors) Facing 416 

Industrial Map of the United States, 1904 (in colors) . Facing 428 

Center of Population in the United States, 1 790-1900 430 

Porto Rico and Cuba 450 

The Philippine Islands 455 

The United States and Its Territorial Possessions (in colors) 

. . . . .• Facing 456 

The Republic of Panama 461 

The Alaskan Boundary Dispute 463 



A LIST OF THE PLATES 

The pictures in color are intended to illustrate ten turniitg points in American 

history 

George Washington the Gibbs-Channing portrait, 

from the painting by Gilbert Stuart Facing title 

Columbus Sighting Land " i 

The Landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth " 55 

Wolfe's Victory on the Heights of Abraham " 131 

Washington Taking Command of the Troops at Cambridge " 160 

The Surrender of Lord Cornwallis at Yorktown .... " 194 

Settlers Moving West Along the Cumberland Road ... " 261 

A Whig Parade in the Presidential Campaign of 1840 . . " 278 

Pickett's Charge at the Battle of Gettysburg " 361 

Driving the " Golden Spike ■' on the Union Pacific Railroad " 415 

The Battle of Manila Bay . " 451 



to 

Ida Donsox Mace 

in appreciation of sympathy and help 

in the preparation of 

this book 




coi.uMnrs sighting lanp 
The heffinniiii^ of fJie history 0/ our country 



MACE'S 

SCHOOL HISTORY 

OF THE 

UNITED STATES 



€|)e ^etioti of 2Di$fcoberp anD oBrploration 

HOW EUROPE FOUND AMERICA 

EUROPE NEEDS A NEW ROUTE TO INDIA 

1. The Visits of the Northmen. We do not know 

exactly when people from Europe first visited America. 

In early times the people of Norway, who were called 

Northmen, were bold sailors, and, although their vessels 

were only latge, open boats, they did not fear to make 

voyages upon the 

stormy Atlantic, 

Driven by oar as 

well as by sail, and 

crowded with tall, 

fair-haired warriors 

eager for conquest 

and adventure, the 

long black ships of 

these sea-rovers 

were often seen 

thousands of miles 

from home. 

We know that 

the Northmen dis- Northmen's ships 

r>r»fr<=.f«ar1 cti-\r\ cfi+flAr1 ^^^ raven on the sail and the dragon' s head on the 
v-uvcicu ctiiu. JjCLUCU prow are symbols of swiftness and fierceness 

2 (i) 




How Europe Found Avicrica 



both Iceland and Greenland, and that about the year looo, 
under the lead of a bold chief, Leif Ericson, they reached 
the coast of what is probably now New England. They 
landed, built huts, and spent the winter in this region, 
which they named Vinland, because w41d grapes were 
abundant. Later other parties of Northmen visited 
the new land, but, on account of the hostility of the 
Indians, made no settlements. The story of their dis- 
covery probably did not reach the other parts of Europe 
at that time. 

2. The Crusades ; Old Routes to India. For hun- 
dreds of years European nations along the Mediterranean 
Sea had been interested in the people and products of 




o o ^ 

^^r" /^^ <r^ n^- 



^ 



/li 




"'4^ 



INDIAN •::OCEAN 



Northern Route Controlled by Genoa Middle Route . 

Southern Route Controlled by Venice — • — i— i— i — . 

OLD TRADE ROUTES TO INDIA 

The ships and caravans traveling over these routes sought the silks and spices 
from India and the Spice Islands 

the East. The religious wars called the Crusades (1095- 
1291), during which thousands upon thousands of Euro- 
pean Christians invaded western Asia to rescue Jeru- 
salem from the Mohammedans, increased this interest 
and aroused a strong demand for Oriental silks, spices, 



Europe Needs a New Route to India 




and precious stones. But the stimulus to trade was not the 
only advantage that Europe gained. Shipbuilding and 
the art of navigation were improved. 

Regular routes of trade and travel 
had long been established between 
Italy and the far East and were now 
used more than ever before. One of 
these ran from Venice through the 
Red Sea and the Indian Ocean, 
another from Genoa by w^ay of Con- 
stantinople and across the Black and 
Caspian seas, while a third led across 
Syria and then down the Euphrates 
to the Persian Gulf. 

3. Marco Polo; The Turks. 
Just as the Crusades were drawing 
to a close, Marco Polo, who lived in 
Venice, visited central and eastern 
Asia. He traveled almost thirty years, and saw lands 
and people, towns and cities, customs, manners, and 
products which were then unknown in Europe. All that 
he saw and did he described in a famous book of travels. 
His story made the people of Europe all the more curi- 
ous to know about the far East, and helped Columbus 
to form his ideas of the world (§ 7). 

While the wonderful stories of Marco Polo were 
working their way into the minds of Europeans and 
making them wish that they knew more of these strange 
countries, the old land routes to the East were closed by 
the armies of the Turks. The Turks, who were Moham- 
medans and believers in the religious teaching of the 
prophet Mohammed, then lived in western Asia, and 
were the enemies of the Christian nations of Europe. 
In 1453 the city of Constantinople fell into their hands, 
and the Eastern trade of Genoa began to decay. 



.in- . 

A CRUSADER 



How Europe Foiind America 



4. The Race for India Begins. Gradually all the 
overland roads were closed and European merchants 
were compelled to look to the ocean for new routes to 
India. The advantage naturally lay with the (Countries 
of western Europe bordering on the Atlantic — Spain, 
Portugal, France, and England. When commerce began 
on the Atlantic Ocean as well as on the Mediterranean 
Sea, all these became important commercial nations. 

Spain and Portugal gradually came to see that the 
discovery of an ocean route to the far East would greatly 
increase their trade, and that whichever nation controlled 
such a route would far outstrip her rivals. Obtaining 
trained sailors from Italy, they began the search for a 
new route to India by sea long before France or England 
realized how important such a discovery would be. 

5. The Portuguese Find a New Route (i486). Before 
the old land routes were entirely cut off, the new move- 
ment to give Europe a sea route to the long sought land 
was well under way. Early in the fifteenth century 

Prince Henry of Portugal, 
wishing to spread a knowl- 
edge of geography, to convert 
the heathen, and add to the 
glory of his country, estab- 
lished a school of navigation 
on Cape St. Vincent. Here 
he gathered students and ex- 
perienced sea captains to be 
taught by wise teachers sum- 
moned from distant lands. 

Trained in the use of chart 
and compass, Henry's seamen 
began to brave the dangers of 
the unknown western coast of 
Africa in their efforts to find 




V'j.f''^^ 



PRINCE HENRY OF PORTUGAL 

From a colored print made by Winck- 

eiman &» ^ons, Berlin, Germany, 

m fSt)8 



Europe Needs a New Route to India 



5 



a new route to India. The ignorant and superstitions 
sailors imagined that the sea was full of all sorts of dan- 
gers; that the earth was surrounded by a zone of fire 



^ ^K W\-E. 






\ 



'"■Bom X/^Jy'.'^ .'''fe'^'' ' A 

> ^'fl INDIAN OCEAN "■Z"^"' 



Vc 



8 



r^ 



5puTH ■;^ 

VMERICA C.of Good Hope >7^- 




^<:^Dias i^Sb 



£ 



,j^^% 



PORTUGUESE VOYAGES TO INDIA 

An all-ivater route to India was the object of the Portuguese 

at the equator; that the sea was up-hill and down-hill; 
and that ocean giants stood ready to destroy their ves- 
sels. But Henry urged his seamen to sail past the 
dreaded Cape Bojador and bring back an account of the 
seas beyond. This brave deed was accomplished in 1434, 
and all Portugal rang with applause. 

From that time on, attracted by the slave trade, by 
stories of the "gold coast," and encouraged by the hope 
of reaching the East Indies, the Portuguese pushed slowly 
down the African coast till Bartholomeu Dias rounded 
the Cape of Storms, as he called it, and sailed into the 
Indian Ocean (i486). With Dias on this famous voyage 
was a brother of Christopher Columbus. 

In his enthusiasm over the exploit of Dias, tne King 
of Portugal renamed the Cape of Storms the Cape of 
Good Hope. The way to India was at last known, and 
many terrors of the deep had vanished. But the journey 
was long and tedious, and men hoped for a shorter route. 



Hoiv Europe Found America 



COLUMBUS SEEKS A NEW ROUTE AND FINDS A NEW WORLD 

6. Early Life of Columbus. Christopher Columbtis 
was born in Genoa, probably in 1446, when that city was 
at the height of its maritime enterprise. In his boyhood 
days he studied geography, astronomy, and drawing. 
When not in school he made frequent voyages on the 
Mediterranean, the ancient training school for sailors, and 

on his return he some- 
times engaged in mak- 
ing maps and charts. 
In 1470 Columbus, 
attracted by the fame 
of Portuguese discov- 
eries, journeyed- to 
Lisbon. The story 
runs that while there 
he married the daugh- 
ter of one of Prince 
Henry's most famous 
navigators, and went 
to live on the island 
of Porto Santo, of 
which his father-in- 
law had been gov- 
ernor. There he 
came into possession 
of the old sailor's charts and maps. 

7. Columbus Thinks Out a Shorter Route. It is 
said that the idea of a shorter route to India by way of 
the west first came to Columbus while he was poring 
over these maps. He had gradually come to believe 
that the earth is round. This was not a new theory, for 
it had been believed for hundreds of years by learned 
men. But Columbus alone determined to make good 
his theory by a voyage to the westward. He had figured 




CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS 

From the portrait by Autonis van Moor, painted 

in 1^42, from t~iv6 mini at tires in the Palace 

of JPardo. Reproduced by permission 

of C. F. Gunther, Chicago 



Columbus Finds a New World 7 

out from maps, charts, and books of travel tliat the earth 
was a third smaller than it is, and that Asia was a great 
deal larger than it is, and from this he reasoned that the 
East Indies were about where the West Indies are. 




THE TOSCANELLI MAP, 1474 

// explains the prevalent idea of the size of the world at that time., and how 
Colutnbus expected to find India when he found A7nerica 

Toscanelli, a celebrated Italian geographer, sent 
Columbus a map which he used on his first voyage. On 
this map Zipangu (Japan) and the mainland of India 
were both shown, Japan being placed only twenty-five 
hundred miles west of the Canaries. This mistake was 
a fortunate one, for probably neither Columbus nor any 
one else would have then ventured on a voyage that 
promised to be longer, more dangerous, and more expen- 
sive than that around the southern point of Africa. 

8. Columbus Begins the Struggle for Aid (1474). 
And now began one of the most heroic struggles in the 
history of the world — a struggle of faith, patience, and 
wisdom against superstition, jealousy, and ignorance. 
Only great courage and resolution could have succeeded. 



8 How Europe Found America 

As the mind of Columbus dwelt upon the greatness 
of his undertaking, he felt that God had called him to 
carry it out. Once convinced of this, no opposition was 
too strong for him to overcome, no suffering too great 
for him to bear. Columbus believed, too, that the untold 
wealth of India would be his ; but even here his noble 
views led him to pledge the riches he was to gain to the 
service of the church. He was also ambitious to win an 
honorable place for himself by doing great deeds. 

With such reasons to urge him on, Columbus went 
bravely forward. Tradition telis us that, still loving the 
land of his birth, he first offered his services to Genoa, 
but in vain. Later he appealed to the King of Portugal. 
The king, although he pretended to reject the scheme, 
sent a secret expedition to test the ideas of Columbus. 
But the sailors lost heart and soon returned. Insulted 
by such two-faced treatment, Columbus resolved to try 
his fortunes in Spain. 

' 9. Columbus in Spain (1484-1492). Ferdinand and 
Isabella, the Spanish king and queen, were busy trying 
to drive the Moors, a people from Africa, out of Spain, 
but they summoned Columbus to meet their wise men 
in the University of Salamanca. The majority doubted 
his views and argued against him. Though he found 
friends among the most learned friars, no decision was 
made. 

Then came years of waiting and disappointment. His 
brother Bartholomew, having returned from the great 
voyage of Dias, appealed in vain to England and to 
France for help. 

In the fall of 1491 Columbus, grown old with waiting, 
decided to go to France himself. While on the way he 
told the story of his hopes and disappointments to the 
prior of a convent near Palos on the coast of Spain. The 
prior hastened to the queen and begged her to call 



Columbus Finds a Neiv World 9 

Columbus back. She did so and sent him money to 
buy clothes and food. But he had to wait still another 
year ! 

Spain was carrying on her last great struggle with the 
Moors ; but soon Granada, the Moorish capital, fell, and 




COLUMBUS AND HIS SON ASKING ALMS AT THE CONVENT NEAR PALOS 

The prior of this convent was the person w/io begged the queen to call 
Columbus back 

all Spain was now Christian. America's time was at 
hand, for the good queen was at last ready to aid Colum- 
bus. She provided more than half the money for the 
voyage and compelled the town of Palos to furnish him 
two vessels. 

10. The First Voyage (1492-1493). After very sol- 
emn religious services had been held, Columbus, with 
three small vessels and about one hundred sailors, left 
the little port of Palos, August 3, 1492. The world's 
most famous voyage had begun. 

The little fleet sailed directly for the Canary Islands, 
where final preparations were made. In September it 
began its journey across an unknown sea. The sailors 



lO 



How Europe Found America 



were sad, because they felt that they had said good-by to 
the world, while Columbus was happy because he saw 
the hopes of a lifetime about to be realized. 

For over a month they sailed directly west. When 
the sea was calm the sailors feared the breezes would 
never blow again; and when the trade-winds carried 
them steadily away from their home the crews imagined 
no west wind would ever rise to carry them back. But 
worst of all, that steadfast friend, the compass, began to 
vary. The sailors clamored to return, and at one time 
threatened to rebel, but Columbus held resolutely on his 
way. Finally he yielded to their wishes to follow a flock 
of birds to the southwest, hoping sooner to reach land. 

On October 12th the shores of a new world came into 
view, although what they saw was to them only an island 
of the East Indies. The dream of Columbus had more 
than come true. With great pomp and ceremony the 




A T L A N T I C 

. Azores 



V^( SPAIN 

-isbonttl .,j\o^ 



^t)"' 



AMERICA^ 9, 

BthllCUA Is. ^^*'' 
* . ' San Salvador 



Columbv.%_ 



coii- 



o4^ 



Cf<* "^ Columbus taileJ 

■tuf. 3, iWi^jP 
Madeihi I.^ .j^i^ 
Arrivt,!. /tuf. Ulh ,;^^ 
Vtparltd.Stpl.CtK.^y' . 

/«2 :-^>:', 

'^^.^' / S A F R I C A 



2 



SOUTH AMERICA 



O C E A N 




THE FOUR VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS 

The period covered by Colujiibus on his voyages was twelve years 

flag of Spain was planted on one of the Bahama Islands. 
Later Cuba, which they thought to be a portion of Asia 
itself, was discovered. 



Columbus Finds a New World 



II 



Columbus coasted among the West Indies until Jan- 
uary, 1493, exploring the region, studying the natives, 
and searching for gold and spices. On his return to 




_ f^^^^a^^.^% 



After the painting by John Vanderljn in the rotunda of the Capitol tt Washington 
COLUMBUS CLAIMING POSSESSION BY PLANTING THE FLAG OF SPAIN ON THE 
ISLAND OF SAN SALVADOR 

Spain he was received by Ferdinand and Isabella with 
every mark of favor. There was no sign as yet of the 
neglect and unjust treatment which Spain was later to 
bestow upon her greatest benefactor. 

II. Effects of the Discovery in Europe; The Naming 
of the New World. Spain and Portugal were the first 
to be aroused by the news of Columbus's discovery. 
Portugal, deeply disappointed at having let slip the 
golden opportunity, pushed her explorations around 
Africa, and had the satisfaction of seeing her own sailor, 
da Gama, reach India before any other European navi- 
gator (1498). 

Cabral, another Portuguese, discovered Brazil (1500), 
and Portugal sent Amerigo Vespucci (Latin, Americus 
Vespucius) to make further explorations (1501). He 



12 



Hoiv Europe Found America 




followed the coast of vSoutli America till Antarctic ice 
drove him back. It was supposed that he had discovered a 
new and different continent from that seen by Columbus, 
which was still believed to be a part of Asia, and the 

geographers named it America, 
after its explorer. As time passed, 
but without any intention of tak- 
ing honor from Columbus, this 
name was also applied to the north- 
ern continent. 

Spain, in the meantime, had 
hurried a messenger to Rome to 
tell Pope Alexander VI. the story 
of Columbus' wonderful discov- 
ery, and to ask for his blessing on 
the work and for his authority to 
hold the new lands. This author- 
ity was granted, and the Pope, 
drawing a meridian one hundred 
leagues west of the Azores, de- 
creed that all new lands west of this 
line should belong to Spain and those east to Portugal. 

12. Later Voyages of Columbus. Spain, however, 
had not waited for the Pope's answer, but had hurried 
Columbus off, with a splendidly equipped expedition, to 
make a settlement. How different from the first expe- 
dition ! Then the sailors of Palos refused to go; now fif- 
teen hundred persons overcrowded the vessels. Then 
the crew was made up in part of criminals ; now, of 
Spanish grandees. Then there were only three small 
vessels ; now there was a large and strong fleet of ships. 
Then all Spain looked on the voyage as leading to cer- 
tain destruction ; now, with joy as leading to vast riches 
and fame. But although on this voyage Columbus dis- 
covered Jamaica and Porto Rico, the expedition failed 



AMERIGO VESPUCCI 
From the original fresco by 
Domenico Corradi Gliirlan- 
daio in the church of the Og- 
nissantiy Florence. Repro- 
duced through the courtesv of 
The Century Co., New York 



Foundation of Clai^ns to Territory 13 

to accomplish the dazzling results which Spain had so 
eagerly expected. 

Again in 1498, on a third voyage, Columbus saw South 
America and the mouth of the Orinoco, but still thought 
the country was only a part of India. His fourth and 
final voyage was begun in 1 502, from which he returned, 
old, disappointed, and despised because he had not 
found the hoped-for riches. He died before he could 
know that he had discovered a new world. 

13. England Sends Out the Cabots (1497-1498). 
Even the miserly King of England, Henry VII., was so 
stirred by the news from Spain that he decided that 
England, too, should try to find new routes to the Indies. 
Accordingly, in 1497, John Cabot, a native of Columbus* 
own town, but resident in England, sailed away from 
the port of Bristol to the coast of North America. 

The next year John Cabot's son, Sebastian, continued 
his explorations, and probably visited the coast of what 
is now the United States. On these voyages England 
rested her claim to North America, but as neither gold 
nor a passage to India had been found, the work of the 
Cabots was not at once followed up. 

WHERE EUROPE PLANTED INSTITUTIONS 

THE FOUNDATION OF CLAIMS TO TERRITORY 

14. How European Institutions Differed. It was of 

the greatest importance to this country and to the world 
which of the nations of Europe settled in North Amer- 
ica, and which one occupied the largest and best part of 
the continent, because these nations differed much in 
their ideas about government, religion, and social life. 

Spain and France had kings who ruled with almost 
absolute power over their people, and who did not allow 
them to take much part in the government or to think 
much for themselves. 



14 Where Europe Planted Institutions 

England, too, had a king, but her people for centuries 
had elected a body of men called the Parliament which 
helped to make the laws. Moreover, English towns and 
cities had the right to manage their own affairs. Hol- 
land also had an assembly of lawmakers and some self- 
government in her towns and cities. 

In France and Spain people were sharply divided into 
classes. All the men of one class were expected to fol- 
low the occupations of their fathers, and could not easily 
rise to higher positions. In England and Holland there 
were also classes, but men did not find it so hard to rise. 
So, while Spain at first had the advantage in the contest 
for the possession of North America, because of the work 
of Columbus, it is not surprising that she waS soon out- 
stripped by nations whose people had more freedom. 

15. What a Nation Had to Do to Make Its Claims 
Good. In their struggle for American territory Euro- 
pean nations were not troubled by the fact that the new 
lands were already occupied by natives, for it was a rule 
among them that Christian nations had the right to con- 
quer and possess any country occupied by heathen tribes. 

But to hold such lands against the claims of other 
Christian nations, two things were necessary — the 
nation making the claim must have been not only the 
first to discover the country, but must have settled it 
within a reasonable time. This was called the " law of 
nations " in regard to newly found lands, but there was 
no one to enforce the law except the nations themselves. 
Hence they violated it whenever they dared, thus some- 
times causing war. 

16. Foundation of Spanish Claims. By right of dis- 
covery and settlement, Spain was entitled to most of 
the West Indies, and had taken the first steps toward 
possessing parts of South America. (See §11.) In 
1 5 13 Ponce de Leon discovered and named Florida, and 



Foundation of Claims to Tcrj-itory 



15 



Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Darien and planted the 
flag of Spain in the waters of the Pacific. 

The year 15 19 was a most celebrated one in the 
history of Spain, for then the famous Cortes began his 
conquest of Mexico (1519-1521), by far the richest and 
most advanced country of North America, and Magellan 
started from Spain to sail around the world by the way 
of South America, the East Indies, and the Cape of 
Good Hope (1519- 
1522). This voy- 
age proved two 
things: (/) that 
the earth is round 
and can be circum- 
navigated ; {2) that 
the new lands al- 
ready discovered 
ar^ not only not a 
part of Asia, but/ 
stand across the 
pathway to that 
country. The La- 
drones and the 
Philippine Islands 
were added to 
Spain's claim. 

A little later Narvaez, following in the footsteps of 
De Leon, carried a colony to Florida, but the expedition 
ended in failure. 

17. Expeditions of De Soto and Coronado. In 1539 
Ferdinand de Soto, with a very large expedition, once 
more invaded Florida. He traveled many weary miles 
through forest and swamp, and sought in vain for rich 
cities which Spanish imagination had painted in more 
golden colors than the cities conquered by Cortes. He 




FERDINAND MAGELLAN 

From the portrait designed and engraved by 
Ferdinand Selma in 1788 



l6 Where Europe Planted Institutions 

wandered through the northern portion of Georgia, 
Alabama, Mississippi, and Arkansas, but only a remnant 
of the expedition ever returned. De Soto himself died 
and was buried beneath the waters of the Mississippi, 
which he discovered in 1541. 

Before De Soto's fate was known, Coronado marched 
northward from Mexico (1540), with a large expedition, 
and explored regions along the Gila, the Colorado, and 
the upper Arkansas rivers. He found no rich empires, 
but he did see the cliff towns of the Zuni Indians. These 
failures, together with the success of Cortes in Mexico 
and Pizarro in Peru, which excited the Spaniards anew 
by the stories of gold and silver mines, turned their 
attention southward, from central North America. 

Therefore, not until 1565 did Spain establish the first 
permanent settlement in what is now the United States 
at St. Augustine Florida. The second was not founded 
until 1582 at Santa Fe, New Mexico. Later the Span- 
iards planted missions in Southern California. It soon 
appeared that Spain would succeed in planting her 
ideas and institutions only in the southern part of North 
America. 

18. What the French Claimed. Of all the great 
nations of western Europe, France was the last to be 
stirred by the stories of the New World. (See §4.) 
Hardy French fishermen, however, braved the fogs of 
Newfoundland as early as 1504 to find the codfish John 
Cabot had seen. 

Verrazano, a bold 'Italian sailor under the French 
flag, seeking to pounce upon Spanish ships laden with 
gold, coasted from North Carolina to New England 
(i 524). Ten years later Cartier sailed up the St, Lawrence 
to an Indian town near a hill which he named Montreal. 
This voyage formed the basis of the French claim to the 
St. Lawrence region. 



Foundation of Claims to Territory 



17 



The first effort of the French to found a settlement 
was made by Roberval and Cartier (i 540-1 543). But the 
nation at home gave no aid to these bold pioneers, and 
failures resulted. 

19. The Huguenots; Champlain. It was not long, 
however, before civil war in France between Catholics 
and Protestants (Huguenots) drove the latter to seek pro- 
tection in the wilds of America (1562), and they planted 
a colony on the St, John's River, in Florida (i 564-1 565). 

Florida, however, was claimed by the Spaniards, who 
fitted out an expedition 
under Menendez and de- 
stroyed the colony. A 
French expedition took 
revenge by hanging the 
Spaniards, but Menendez 
later reestablished the 
Spanish colony (1568). A 
cruel civil war now weak- 
ened the energies of France 
for a long time, and not/^ 
until 1605 was the first 
permanent French settle- 
ment made at Port Royal, 
Acadia, now Nova Scotia. 
(See map facing page 52.) 

Soon after, Champlain, 
often called the father of New France, established Quebec 
(1608). His energy and wisdom as governor laid the 
foundation of French power in Canada. Just as Spanish 
ideas had taken root to the southward of what is now 
the United States, so French civilization was to be firmly 
planted to the northward along the St. Lawrence. 

20. England's Claims; Her Famous Sea-Rovers. 
Little was done by England to follow up the voyages 




SAMUEL CHAMPLAIN 

From the portrait painting in Indepen- 
dence Hull, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 



Where Europe Planted Institutions 



of the Cabots (§ 13) till the great Elizabeth was on the 
throne. England's most dangerous enemy was Spain, 
and the religious and trade rivalry between them aroused 

those hardy sailors, 



who soon made 
England famous as 
well as feared. 

The most cele- 
brated of the Eliza- 
bethan seamen was 
Sir Francis Drake, 
whom the Spaniards 
nicknamed "The 
Dragon." In 1577 
he sailed for the 
western coast of 
America to plun- 
der the rich treas- 
ure ships of Spain. 
From one ship 
alone he obtained 
twenty-six tons of 
silver and eighty 
pounds of gold. We 
call such work 
piracy, but Drake looked upon it as a patriotic and relig- 
ious duty. He spent a winter on the California coast, 
thus founding England's claim to the Oregon region 
which Drake named New Albion. He returned to Eng- 
land by way of the Cape of Good Hope (i 580). Frobisher, 
Davis, and other daring sailors made less important 
voyages in search of a northwest passage to Asia. 

The efforts of these English "sea dogs" aroused new 
interest in America. The stories of adventure, of new 
lands, of vast riches awaiting any one bold enough to 




QUEEN ELIZABETH 



The Queen at the age of forty-eight . From a 
reprint of the original engraving by theyouni 
Hendrik de Hondt. By permission of the 
Virginia Historical Society 



ibjz 
unger 
'if the 



Foundation of Claims to Territory 



19 



seek them, stirred the imaginations of all classes of 
Englishmen. Queen Elizabeth herself encouraged this 
interest by granting a charter to Sir Humphrey Gilbert 
for trade and settlement. Gilbert's voyages were unsuc- 
cessful, and on the last one (i 583) he was lost and no word 
was ever again heard of leader, crew, or ship. 

21. Raleigh Becomes Interested in America. Gil- 
bert's rights fell to his half-brother, Sir Walter Raleigh, 
who already had in mind a scheme for planting an Eng- 
lish colony in America. Raleigh was one of the most 
prominent characters at the court of Elizabeth and stood 
high in her favor. He was full of chivalrous devotion 
to his queen and country, and was one of the most accom- 
plished men of that brilliant age of English history. He 
could write poetry and history, fight the Spaniard, and 
give counsel in affairs of state. 

Raleigh was among the first 
to see that English colonies in 
America would not only check 
the power of Spain, but also 
add to the greatness of Eng- 
land. He induced a friend to 
tell the queen how the pro- 
posed voyage would be "a 
great bridle to the Indies of.. 
the Kinge of Spaine — and 
would bringe Kinge Phillip 
from his highe throne." Two 
vessels sent out by him ex- 
plored the coast of North 
Carolina in the summer of 
1584, and returned with such 
glowing accounts of the beauty 
and richness of the country that the queen named the 
region Virginia, in honor of her own virgin life. 




SIR FRANCIS DRAKE 

From the original portrait attrib- 
uted to Sir Antonis van Moor, in 
the possession of Viscount Dillon^ 
at Ditchly Park, England 



20 



Where Europe Planted Institutions 



22. Raleigh Tries to Make Good England's Claim. 

The next year Raleigh planted his first colony, over one 
hundred strong, on Roanoke Island (see map, page 21), 

with Ralph Lane as deputy 
governor. But the settlers, 
enticed by the prospect of 
gold, forgot the common good 
and quarreled with the In- 
dians. Threatened by starva- 
tion, they were only too glad 
when Sir Francis Drake took 
pity on them and carried them 
back to their native land. 

The colonists took home 
two important American 
products, the "Irish" potato 
and tobacco, the one to be- 
come an almost universal 
food, and the other very soon 
to become the basis of Vir- 
ginia's prosperity. 
Raleigh was more in earnest than the colonists, and 
his courage held out longer than his purse. But a num- 
ber of rich men came to his support and it was resolved 
to start another settlement (1587) on Chesapeake Bay, 
not with men only, but with whole families. The colo- 
nists, however, landed at the old place. Here was born 
Virginia Dare, the first white child of American birth. 
John White, who was to govern, soon returned to Eng- 
land for aid, but when it arrived (1590) almost every 
trace of the colony had disappeared, and Sir Walter 
searched in vain for his " lost colony." After the death 
of Queen Elizabeth, Raleigh was imprisoned for many 
years, and finally beheaded. 

The work of settlement was shown to be too costly for 




SIR WALTF.K KALKIGH 

From the orij^'nal portrait painted 
by Federigo Zuccaro 



TJie Indians 



21 







altiinjrr y 






'0O7 t^'^/l,' 






one person, and had to be 
undertaken by a great 
company of merchants. 
Before we study how the 
English made good their 
claims to American soil, 
we must look briefly at the 
most dangerous obstacle 
which they had to over- 
come. 

THE INDIANS 

23. The Original Own- 
ers of America. When 
Europeans first set foot on 
American soil they found 
it already occupied by 
another race of men, the 
Indians (see map facing 
page 24), so named by 
Columbus because he be- 
lieved that they were really 
the people of India. 

How long the Indian 
had been here when the white man came, no one knows. 
In certain parts of the country, especially in the Missis- 
sippi Valley region, large mounds have been found, 
shaped like animals or serpents. These contain the 
remains of what is believed by some to have been a still 
, earlier race, known as the Mound Builders. But they 
may have been the ancestors of the race with whom the 
white men had to deal when they settled America. 

So, in addition to disputing among themselves about 
the land, the Europeans had to settle matters with the 
Indians, either by peace or war. The English particu- 
larly had great difficulty. Sometimes treaties were made 




( T- \*,«ANOKE I. 

N 

'■y^--^ Ocracuke Jnltt ^ 
":J^;;;J^ROAToA^^ 
C. Lookout 



EARLY SETTLEMENTS IN "VIRGINIA" 

T/te sivamps about Pamlico Sound made 
pei-manent settlement impossible 
in this region 



22 



Where Europe Planted Institutions 



and the two races got on happily together for a time. 
But the white men were greedy and the Indians suspi- 
cious, so the treaties were broken and war followed. It 
was very hard for them to understand each other.' The 
Indians had no notion of the value of the land to the 
white men, nor for what they really wanted it. The 
Englishmen cut down trees to make farms and villages, 
and thus destroyed the hunting grounds of the Indians. 
Since the Indians could not live like the white men 
and become civilized, they were forced to push back into 
the forests. But one tribe could not go far before it was 
on the lands occupied by another. This usually resulted 
in war between the tribes. Therefore, the Indians were 
frequently unwilling to give up their lands. From these 
and other causes, permanent peace between the two races 
was almost impossible. 

The white man learned many useful 
things from the Indian — how to raise 
Indian corn ; how to take wild game 
and prepare it for use; how to build 
birch-bark canoes and wigwams. He 
soon taught the white man his method 
of fighting, also — that of getting behind 
trees rather than fighting in line. But, 
on the whole, the Indian hindered 
more than he helped the occupation of 
America by the white man. To what 
extent the Indians hindered settlement, 
and why they were beaten back step by * 
step, we can understand best by a short 
study of them. 

24. Indian Characteristics. Be- 
cause the Indian's skin is copper-colored 
he is called the Red Man. His eyes are small and dark 
and his hair is long, coarse, and jet black. His body is 




AN INDIAN WARRIOR 



The Indians 



23 



straight and slender, and his movements are easy, quick, 
and quiet. Because his home was in the great forest 
or on the wide prairie, he knew all the sights and 
sounds of both. Because the beasts, birds, and fish fur- 
nished him with food, clothing, and many necessary 
articles, he knev^ their habits 
and ways of li . He could 
track the wil^" 1 to his den, 

follow traces ^.-.lO^i^h the forests 
which no whitf ;Tian could see, 
and could irii\*n?a the cry of 
beasts and birds so perfectly 
that the animals themselves 
were deceived. 

The Indian was a faithful 
friend, but a most cruel enemy. 
He delighted in the suffering 
of his foes, and used every 
means for their torture which 
his mind could invent, from 
making slaves of them to burn- 
ing them, by slow fires, at the 
stake. He did not fight openly, but stole unawares upon 
the enemy or lay in ambush to wait for his coming, 
when he shot him or rushed out with murderous yells 
and cut him down with his tomahawk and " scalped " 
him. 

25. Indian Society. The Indian man was a warrior 
and hunter, and spent his time chiefly in battle and the 
chase. When going to war, he painted his body to 
make himself look fierce, and armed himself with bow 
and arrow and tomahawk. After a time he obtained 
the rifle and hunting-knife from his white enemy. As 
a hunter he trapped and shot his game, sometimes going 
a very long way to find it. 




AN INDIAN SQUAW 



24 Where Europe Planted Institutions 

The Indian woman or squaw not only cooked and 
sewed and built the wigwam, but even raised the scanty- 
crop of corn, beans, melons, and squashes. The squaw 
was a drudge, for she not only carried the wood for 
the wigwam fires, but when the Indian changed his 
dwelling place she carried the wigwam poles and skins 
also. In spite of her hard toil, he ^er, the Indian 
mother often had much influence ov - husband and 

children, and sometimes even in the c*ii.airs of the tribe. 

The Indian had no domestic animal e-gppt the dog to 
increase his supply of food and cloth^x^; and therefore 
was compelled to move from place to place in search of 
good hunting and a mild climate. But in spite of all the 
warrior and the squaw could do, they often suffered 
from hunger and cold. 

26. Organization and Government. From the map 
given (see map facing this page), it is easy to find the 
location of the Indian families and tribes. (See also pages 
60, 69, and 78.) We are most concerned with those tribes 
which occupied portions of the United States, although 
the story of the more advanced ones in Peru and Mexico 
is even more interesting. Among all Indians there was 
very imperfect government. 

The largest divisions of Indians were the great fami- 
lies, such as the Algonquins, the Iroquois, and the Da- 
kotas. These were divided into tribes and the tribes into 
clans. The clans were made up of persons supposed to 
be descended from the same female ancestor. Each clan 
was governed by its own elected sachem. To the clan, 
and not to the individual, belonged most of the property, 
except weapons and ornaments. The tribe was governed 
by a council of sachems which decided all important 
questions, such as war. 

One great weakness of the Indian race in contending 
with the white man was lack of union. There was no 



Period of Experiment 25 

government over all the tribes of the same great family, 
and often there was war between them. The most noted 
union or confederacy among the Indians was made up 
of five tribes of the Iroquois family known as the Five 
Nations. Their strength was feared by the other tribes 
and respected by the white man. 

Although the Indian tribes were the original occu- 
pants of the soil of America, it is now clear why they had 
to fight to continue to live in the land of their fathers, 
and why in that struggle they were defeated. 

€f)e IPerioli of Colonisation 

THE COLONY OF VIRGINIA 

PERIOD OF EXPERIMENT 

27. The London and Plymouth Companies. Even 
after Raleigh's failure English vessels sailed almost every 
year to make explorations and to trade with the Indians. 
Finally two great companies of merchants were formed 
in London and Plymouth ( 1 606). They obtained a charter 
from King James by which the Plymouth Company 
could plant colonies between Nova Scotia and Long 
Island and the London Company from the Potomac to 
Cape Fear. The region from Long Island to the Potomac 
was open to both companies. (See map, page 26.) 

The charter promised the colonists and their children 
that they should still be Englishmen with the rights of 
Englishmen, "as if they had been abiding and born 
within the realm of England." But the king took care 
that all power should be in his own hands, by appointing 
a council to remain in England, which should appoint 
another council to reside in Virginia. Although the 
latter council could elect their own president, the settlers 
were allowed to take no part whatever in governing 
themselves. One-fifth of all gold and silver found was 



26 



The Colony of Virginia 



to go into the king's treasury, and the products of labor 
were to be placed in a common storehouse. The king 

and the company 



were evidently 
going to try some 
strange experi- 
ments. 

28. James- 
town, the First 
Permanent Eng- 
lish Settlement in 
America (1607). 
The London 
Company was 
the first to oc- 
cupy Virginia, as 
the entire region 
from Cape Fear 
to Nova Scotia 
was then called. 
All classes of 
people were in- 
terested in send- 




LO.NDON AND PLYMOUTH COMPANIES 

The charter of these companies alloived them to 
plant settlements one hundred miles inland 



ing out the colony. Sermons were preached, and books, 
pamphlets, and poems were written in praise of Virginia. 
It was looked upon as a " promised land," and was called 
" Earth's only paradise." The stories of its gold, silver, 
and precious stones were readily believed. It was 
expected that Virginia would rival Mexico and Peru. 

An English play of that time shows what the people 
liked to hear about Virginia. One of the characters, 
Scapethrift, says, " But is there such treasure there, Cap- 
tain, as I have heard?" 

To which another character, Captain Seagull, replies, 
" I tell thee gold is more plentiful there than copper is 



Period of Experiment 



27 



with tis. Why, man, all their dripping pans are pure 
gold ; and all the chains with which they chain up their 
streets are massy gold ; all the prisoners they take are 
fettered in gold ; and for rubies and diamonds, they go 
forth on holidays and gather them by the seashore to 
hang on their children's coats and stick in their chil- 
dren's caps." 

29. Character of the Settlers. The natural result of 
su&h talk was seen in the character of the one hundred 
and five emigrants who set sail in 1607 under the com- 
mand of Captain Newport. About half of them were 
English "gentlemen," who belonged to a class which did 
no work. The rest were mechanics and laborers, who, 
attracted by the hope of riches, were no more willing 
to work than the gentlemen. There were no farmers 
among them to till the soil, nor 
women and children to make 
homes. 

Most of the settlers hoped soon 
to return to England to enjoy 
their new-found wealth. This 
was not good material with which 
to establish the first permanent 
English colony in America. Even 'J^ 
the leaders quarreled among 
themselves, and threw their ablest 
man, John Smith, into prison be- 
fore the long voyage was ended. 

T TIT 1 11 i • JOHN SMITH 

In May, when all nature m Frofn an engraving- made by 
TT- • • „ i. • I. -u 4. j-f- ii- Simon van Pass^ in 1614, on the 

Virgmia was at its best, the three martrin of smith's map of ''New 

1 . 1 • 1 • J J.1 j.j_i Englatid" in "A Description of 

ships which carried the settlers New England:' This shows him 

• 1 -I . , r^-, 1 T-« A at the age of thirty-seven 

sailed into Chesapeake Bay. A 

low, marshy peninsula, about thirty-five miles above 
the mouth of the James River, was the place selected 
for the landing. A rude fort was soon built and cannon 




28 The Colony of Virginia 

were mounted as a protection against their most danger- 
ous enemies, the Indians and Spaniards. 

If the settlers had been ever so sober and industrious 
they would have found many things more interesting 
than hard labor. They were in a new land in the midst 
of strange sights and sounds; about them were vast 
forests peopled with birds and beasts of unknown kinds ; 
a new race of men was here with strange manners and 
customs. What wonders their imaginations pictured ! 
A few miles inland might be another nation like the 
Mexicans, or just over the mountains the Pacific Ocean ; 
among the hills, mines like those of Peru ; or deeper in 
the forests, streams whose sands were pure gold. The 
idleness which this dreaming led to, together with the 
poor food and the hot climate, destroyed more than half 
the settlers before fall. 

30. John Smith Saves Jamestown. In 1608 Captain 
Newport brought over more settlers, and when John 
Smith was made president of the council — the first two 
presidents had proved to be failures — the little group 
became hopeful. Smith had already explored the rivers 
near at hand, had visited the Indians and traded for 
corn. On one of these expeditions he was captured by 
them and taken to Powhatan, the chief. He became 
interested in Powhatan's daughter, Pocahontas,' who 
afterward married John Rolfe and became a sort of good 
angel to the settlers by keeping peace between them 
and the Indians. 

John Smith permitted no idleness among the settlers. 
Each man had to bear his share in repairing the fort, 

• The story of how John Smith was tried, condemned to death, and 
rescued at the last moment by this Indian maiden is seriously doubted. 
Pocahontas afterward visited England, and was received by the king 
and queen. The able but eccentric John Randolph of Roanoke, once a 
leader in the House of Representatives, was a descendant of John Rolfe 
and Pocahontas. 



Period of Experiment 



29 



building log cabins, planting corn, hunting and fishing, 
and trading with the Indians for provisions. The con- 
dition of the colony greatly improved and the people 
became more contented. 

Thus Smith saved the colony for the time being. In 
spite of all his work, however, the company blamed him 
for not sending home 
gold. In reply he 
plainly told them that 
they ought not to ex- 
pect such people to do 
much. "When you 
send again," said he, 
"better send but thirty 
carpenters, husband- 
men, gardeners, fish- 
ermen, blacksmiths, 
masons, and diggers of 
trees' roots, well pro-^ 
vided, than one thou- 
sand of such as we 
have ! " 

31. The Starving 
Time (1609-1610). John Smith's advice was not taken. 
Several hundred more emigrants arrived, most of them 
"unruly gallants" sent over as a good riddance. For a 
time Smith made them obey, but he was dangerously 
wounded by an explosion of gunpowder, and had to leave 
for England. Idleness and disorder began again. The 
Indians refused supplies, and killed the settlers when 
they could. Not enough houses had been built, and 
people died from exposure and disease. 

By spring starvation was at hand and only sixty of 
the five hundred were left alive. It was decided to 
abandon Jamestown, but as the colonists sailed down 




■''■'■^//^ ' ' ' From a photograph 

RUINS OF THE OLD CHURCH AT JAMESTOWN 



30 



The Colony of Virginia 



the river they met Lord Delaware, the new governor, 
with three well-stocked vessels. JamestoAvn was rees- 
tablished and the colony was once more saved. 

32. The New Charter (1609); Sir Thomas' Dale. 
Something must be done. A large amount of money 
had been spent; hundreds of emigrants had been 
shipped to Virginia, but most of them were dead, and 






T^ke -Yi'/iiji/i 



( ' A X A ] ) A 








TERRITORY CLAIMED BY VIRGINIA UNDER THE CHARTER OK 1609 

TAi's grant gi-eatly enlarged the territory previously held by the 
London Company. Compare with map on page sti 

the stories of suffering produced a bad impression in 
England. The king gave the company a better charter, 
greatly enlarging the grant of land. (See map above.) 
Along the Atlantic coast the boundary line ran two hun- 
dred miles north and two hundred miles south of Old 
Point Comfort, and extended " up into the land through- 
out from sea to sea, west and northwest." The council 
in Virginia was abolished, and a governor with absolute 
authority took its place. 



Getting a Permanent Foothold 31 

By March, 161 1, eight hundred more settlers had 
arrived. Unfortunately they, too, were a shiftless set, 
and could be controlled only by severe laws. But the 
man to govern was at hand. Sir Thomas Dale, a fearless 
soldier, ruled the colony by military law. All offenses 
were punished with great severity, and order and quiet 
were established. The common storehouse (§ 27), instead 
of making men industrious, had made them lazy. Dale 
gave each man a few acres to till as his own, and the 
effect was magical. Even idlers went to work ; content- 
ment increased and crime decreased. New settlements 
were established and, for the first time, prosperity really 
smiled on Jamestown. 

GETTING A PERMANENT FOOTHOLD 

33. A Virginian Industry. In John Smith's time the 
manufacture of ashes, soap, pitch, and glass was begun. 
But these articles were made cheaper at home. In Dale's 
time, however, a native plant, not grown in England, 
began to be raised. This was tobacco. The profits were 
large, and plantations sprang up on both sides of the 
James River. 

Two classes of settlers came : the one to get land and 
establish tobacco plantations, and the other to find work. 
Many of the laborers were " indented servants," because, 
too poor to pay their passage to America, they made 
written contracts which bound them to work for a num- 
ber of years. The planters bought their labor from the 
owners of the vessels bringing them over. Indented serv- 
ants were little less than slaves until their time was out. 

34. How Good Came Out of Evil. Under a third 
charter (161 2) Samuel Argall was sent out to rule the 
colony. He was a tyrant, and worked for his own instead 
of the colony's good. He cheated the company and 
oppressed the settlers. To remedy this the company 
immediately appointed Sir George Yeardley as governor, 



32 TJic Colony of Virginia 

with orders to arrest Argall, abolish Dale's hard laws, 
and allow the settlers some share in a government. 

The long period of experiment was coming to an 
end. Englishmen had governed themselves for centu- 
ries by electing representatives who formed a great 
assembly called the House of Commons. In 1619 
Yeardley instructed the people to elect two men from 
each neighborhood to meet at Jamestown and form a 
representative assembly, called the House of Burgesses, 
an English name meaning the representatives of 
boroughs or towns. 

35. The First Representative Assembly in America 
(1619). On July 30th, Governor Yeardley and his coun 
cil of advisers, together with the burgesses, met in the 
little wooden church at Jamestown, organized the Gen- 
eral Assembly of Virginia, and began the work of self- 
government on this continent. The picture is worth 
remembering. The governor and his council, keeping 
their hats on, took the front seats, while the burgesses 
occupied those in the rear. The session was opened 
with prayer by the clergyman, after which each member 
took the oath. A speaker, his clerk, and a sergeant were 
elected and sat facing the assembly. Some members 
not having been regularly elected were dismissed.' The 
instructions which the company had given Yeardley were 
brought in and read, in order to see whether there was 
in them "any law pressing or binding too hard — because 
this great Charter is to bind us and our heirs forever." 



1 Most of these were English customs. The members of the House 
of Commons still sit with their hats on, a custom which probably once 
signified the equality of its members, but which is now kept up because 
the English like to preserve old and quaint ways. The Commons still 
have their Speaker, who does not speak much, but who acts as a kind of 
chairman and wears a wig instead of a hat. The Burgesses imitated 
the Commons in having a secretary and a sergeant, in taking an oath, 
and in exercising the right to dismiss members. 



Getting a Permanent Foothold 33 

Acts to take the place of Dale's "cruell lawes" were 
then passed. One law compelled all persons to attend 
the Church of England; another provided for the punish- 
ment of idleness, gambling and drunkenness, and discour- 
aged the wearing of fine clothes. The assembly tried 
cases as a court, and at this first session punished an 
unruly servant by nailing him by his ears to the pillory 
for four days, and by whipping him once each day. 

Thus the House of Burgesses began its great career. 
It served as a training school for Virginia statesmen, and 
kept alive the spirit of liberty. When the Revolution 
came one hundred and fifty years later, the House of 
Burgesses furnished both camp and Congress with a 
longer list of brilliant men than any other assembly in 
America. Among its famous members were Washing- 
ton, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, Richard Henry Lee, 
Patrick Henry, Edmund Pendleton, Benjamin Harrison, 
Richard Bland, Edmund Randolph, and George Mason. 

36. Founding the Family and Social Life (1619). 
The colonists, since they could now earn a good living 
and govern themselves, began to wish to remain in 
Virginia. But not many families had yet emigrated. 
It was a colony chiefly of bachelors; there were not 
enough homes with faithful mothers, happy children, 
and cheerful firesides. To encourage the settlers, the 
London Company sent out a large number of women 
to become their wives. The results were most happy. 
Social life was elevated. Greater cheer and comfort 
were soon visible in the log houses of Virginia, and the 
colonists began to labor not only for themselves but for 
their children. Four great institutions of human life 
were now well planted in Virginia: government, reli- 
gion, industry, and the family. Only the school was still 
wanting. Why schools grew slowly in Virginia we shall 
soon see. 



34 



The Colony of Virginia 



37. The Beginnings of Negro Slavery (1619). The 

year 1619 is one of the most famous in the annals of 
Virginia. Then it was that a Dutch vessel landed at 

.A. 




THE DUTCH SELLING NE- ^ > "''••^d 

GROES TO THE VIRGINL\ ' i^^W^ 

PLANTERS, 1619 '""''' -rJP 

The beginnings of negro 

slavery in America C~^J^ ^S^^- 

Jamestown and sold twenty negroes to the planters. 
At this time slavery existed in all the nations of the 
world, and found its way into all the English colonies. 
In Virginia the soil, climate, and chief occupation espe- 
cially favored it. 

Slaves came in very slowly at first, but in 1700 nearly 
one-fourth the population were negroes. The greater 
their number, the larger became the plantations and the 
tobacco crops. But the larger the plantations grew, the 
farther from one another planters lived and the more 
difficult it became to have towns with stores and trade, 
churches and schools. 

The slaveholder did not need to work with his hands, 



Virginia as a Royal Province 35 

but often held office and made the laws, while the non- 
slaveholder had to labor all the harder because he worked 
in competition with the slave who labored only for food, 
clothing, and a house of a very poor kind. The non- 
slaveholder was seldom able to hire a teacher for his 
children. 

38. The Last Days of the London Company. The 
last days of the company were its best. In 1621 it gave 
Virginia a written document confirming and enlarging 
the rights and privileges established by Yeardley. But the 
company was hated by the king because it granted free 
government to Virginia and opposed his tyranny at home. 

At this time, too, a great disaster came upon the col- 
ony. The Indians, who had been quiet and peaceful for 
several years, suddenly fell upon the whites, massacred 
large numbers, and destroyed many settlements. Vir- 
ginia staggered under the blow. The king was quick to 
take advantage of the trouble, and took away the com- 
pany's charter in 1624, although the Virginians took the 
company's side in the dispute. 

America owes a debt of gratitude to the London 
Company. It did a great work for the English race in 
establishing firmly Raleigh's " barrier against the Span- 
iard," and in planting the germs of self-government in 
America when James I. was upholding the " divine right 
of kings " to rule as they pleased. 

VIRGINIA AS A ROYAL PROVINCE 

39. A New King Brings Trouble. When King James 
died (1625), Charles I. inherited not only his father's 
throne, but also his quarrels. Most of the English people 
thought it wrong for the king to tax them without the 
consent of Parliament. Besides, many demanded that the 
English church change its forms and ceremonies. Over 
these questions James and Charles quarreled with the 
people of England for many years. The result was the 



36 



The Colony of J^irgiiiia 




Puritan Revolution, which led to the execution of 
Charles I. (1649) and the rule of Oliver Cromwell in his 

place (165 2-1 660). 

During this revolution 
Charles I. troubled himself 
little about Virginia, except 
to appoint the governors and 
the council. The struggle in 
England encouraged the bur- 
gesses to declare repeatedly 
that no tax could be raised in 
Virginia without their con- 
sent. In 1635 the council 
turned Governor John Har- 
vey out of office for insulting 
its members, wasting the 
taxes, and giving away lands 
belonging to the planters. 
King Charles, believing in 
the divine right of kings, put 
Harvey back in office for a time, but he was soon suc- 
ceeded by Sir William Berkeley, who ruled the colony 
for many years. 

40. Virginia Banishes the Puritans and Welcomes 
the Cavaliers. On the question of " taxation without 
representation " Virginia sided with the king's enemies 
in England, but took the king's part against the Puritans, 
who demanded changes in the church. Under the rule 
of Sir William Berkeley none but Episcopalians were 
permitted to teach and preach, and a law banished all 
other sects from the colony. By 1649 more than one 
thousand Puritans had removed to Maryland, where they 
found religious toleration. While Virginia was losing 
this most vigorous people, another equally vigorous was 
coming to take its place. 



CHARLES I., KING OF ENGLAND 

From a portrait painted by Sir An- 
thony Vandyke after Sir Peter Lety, 
now in t/ie Dresden gallery 



Virginia Under the Commonwealth 



37 



The news of the beheading of the king was received 
with sorrow in Virginia. The burgesses immediately 
declared any one a traitor who tried to justify the king's 
death or denied the right of his son Charles II. to the 
throne. In marked contrast to the people of Massachu- 
setts, who gave shelter to some of the judges who had 
condemned Charles I., all Virginians 
gave a hearty welcome to the follow- 
ers of the king, who were now forced 
to leave England in large numbers. 
They were great people in the eyes 
of the Virginians, for they had 
fought for the king and the church, 
and many of them belonged to aristo- 
cratic families. These Cavaliers, as 
they were called, were educated, re- 
fined, and brave, and were a valuable 
addition to the colony. From them 
descended some of the greatest men 
of our Revolutionary period, states- 
men as well as soldiers. (See list in § 35, page 33.) 




A CAVALIER 

A ty pe of the king" s followers 

who were forced to flee to 

America 



VIRGINIA UNDER THE COMMONWEALTH 

41. Cromwell's Commissioners in Virginia (1652). 

The conduct of Virginia toward Cromwell was brave 
but dangerous (§ 40). Commissioners with war vessels 
from England sailed up the James River in 1652, either 
to treat with Berkeley or to conquer him. The governor, 
hearing of their coming, summoned the militia and pre- 
pared to fight, but a treaty was finally arranged. The 
Virginians submitted to_ the authority of Cromwell on 
condition that they were "to enjoy such freedom and. 
privileges as belong to the free-born people of England." 
Both parties were satisfied with the treaty. 

42. A Period of Freedom. After this agreement all 



38 



The Colony of Virginia 



authority was left, for the first time, in the hands of the 
burgesses. They now elected both governor and coun- 
cil, and proceeded to rule Virginia in a quiet way. It 
was a period of great prosperity. The colony had free 
trade with all the world. Cavalier and Puritan lived 
together without strife. The lesson was a good one, 
but soon forgotten. The death of Cromwell brought 
Charles II. to the throne, and in Virginia, as well as in 
England, there was great rejoicing over the new king. 

THE KING'S SUPPORTERS AGAIN IN POWER 

43. Berkeley Governor a Second Time ; 



Charles II. 




JIc^iKsl^ei c 



How 

Repaid Virginia's Loyalty. As soon as 
Virginia got word that Charles II. was 
king in England, the burgesses elected 
Sir William Berkeley governor, and the 
king's friends ruled Virginia once more. 
They were in a majority and soon passed 
laws banishing Puritans, Quakers, and 
Baptists. The House of Burgesses took 
away the right to vote from people hold- 
ing no land, and then continued to sit for 
sixteen years without a new election. 
In 1 65 1 Parliament had passed the 



OLIVER CROMWELL 

^oTav^e Ten'tati Navigation Act, which compelled English 

ihe^'couealon'''^ colouists to trade with the mother coun- 

^ulsefi^Z'tuyH't try alone. Cromwell promised not to 

^Buckinghamshire, cuforcc this law iu Virginia, but under 

England ' cij^j-ieg n jt ^^s not Only enforced, but 

made so severe that even Berkeley, the friend of the 
king, joined with the planters in protesting against it, 
but all in vain. Under this law the people of Virginia 
could send and receive articles only in English ships, 
and deal only with English merchants. 

But the " merry monarch," as Charles II. was called, 
cared more for the greedy favorites hanging around his 



The King's Supporters Again in Power 



39 



court than he did for the interests of his forty thousand 
loyal subjects in Virginia. So, in 1673, he granted the 
whole colony, for / ^^ 
thirty-one years, '^" - ^,^ 
to two of his fa- 
vorites, Lords 
Culpeper and 
Arlington. This 
action raised 
such a storm of 
protests that the 
easy-going king 
did not dare to 
carry out his in- 
tentions. 

44. Bacon's 
Rebellion (1676). 
As early as 1663 
a small uprising 
occurred as a pro- 
test against the 
way Virginia was 
being governed. 

But this trouble " ' tofiglU the Indians 

only made the governor and burgesses go further in 
taking power into their own hands. The people did not 
forget the freedom enjoyed from 1650 to 1660, and only 
waited an occasion for rebellion. It came when Berke- 
ley, bent on getting rich out of the fur trade, refused 
to protect the settlers from repeated Indian attacks. 

Nathaniel Bacon, a young member of the council, 
rallied the frontiersmen and defeated the Indians. The 
governor proclaimed Bacon and his men rebels, and 
raised a force to pursue them. By this time Virginia 
was in tumult, and the people demanded the election 




BACON AND HIS FOLLOWERS 

Demanding from Governor Berkeley permission 



40 The Colony of Virginia 

of a new House of Burgesses. Berkeley yielded. Bacon 
was chosen a member of the new assembly, which 
repealed many bad laws and sent a petition to the king 
setting forth the ills from which the people suffered. 

Meanwhile the Indians became bolder than before, 
but Berkeley still refused Bacon permission to fight. 
After again defeating the savages. Bacon's army 
marched against the village of Jamestown, where the 
governor's troops were located. A bit of strategy alone 
prevented a battle. Bacon seized some ladies belonging 
to the governor's party and compelled them to stand on 
the breastworks. After a skirmish Berkeley abandoned 
Jamestown, and some of Bacon's men set fire to its less 
than two-score houses. Although the old town was 
rebuilt, it was later burned again by accident. 

When everything seemed to favor the "rebels" Bacon 
was taken sick and died, and there was no one to lead in 
his stead. Berkeley now took his revenge. He put to 
death twenty of Bacon's leading supporters, threw some 
into prison, and seized the property of others. Even 
Charles H. was displeased at the governor's cruelty, and 
declared that "the old fool has put to death more people 
in that naked country than I did here for the death of 
my father." One of the burgesses said, " If we had let 
him alone he would have hanged half the country." 
Charles II. removed Berkeley from office and refused to 
see him at court, and the old governor died broken- 
hearted soon after his return to England. Virginia 
never forgot Bacon's rebellion. 

45. The Founding of the College of William and 
Mary (1693). From the first days of the colony there 
had been talk of schools, and a small number of private 
schools early came into existence. In 1693 a famous 
college was established mainly through the efforts and 
enthusiasm of James Blair, a Scotch clergyman in the 



Maryland : A Neiv Kind of Colony 



41 



Church of England. He raised some money in Virginia 
and then sailed for England to obtain more money and 
a charter. It was the second college founded in America, 
and took its name from the two English rulers who 
then occupied the throne. Many interesting stories 
cluster around its eventful history, and many of Vir- 
ginia's great sons were educated there. 

When we meet the Virginians again we shall find 
them rallying under the leadership of a young Cavalier 
for the final struggle between France and England in 
North America. 



THE OTHER SOUTHERN COLONIES 

MARYLAND: A NEW KIND OF COLONY 

46. The Baltimores Found a Colony of Catholics and 
Protestants (1634). For 

nearly one hundred years 
Catholics and Protestants 
had persecuted each other 
in England. Catholics 
were still fined large sums 
for not attending the Epis- 
copal church, and were 
believed to be more in 
sympathy with Catholic 
countries like Spain and 
France than with England. 
George Calvert, the first 
Lord Baltimore, saddened 
by the bitter persecution of 
his fellow Catholics in 
England, generously re- 
solved to find them a place 
of refuge in America. He first tried Newfoundland, but 
his colony suffered too much from the hard climate. 




GEORGE CALVERT 

First Lord Baltimore. After a portrait 

painted by Daniel Mytens, formerly in 

the possession of Sir Francis Bacon 



42 



TJie Other Southern Colonies 



Finally, Charles I. granted him a portion of Virginia 
and named the country Maryland (see map, page 44), 

in honor of Queen Henrietta 
Maria, formerly a French Cath- 
olic princess, who pitied her 
persecuted people, and sympa- 
thized with the aims of Lord 
Baltimore. The latter died be- 
fore he saw the success of his 
plans, but his eldest son, Cecil 
Calvert, the second Lord Balti- 
more, took up the work. In 1634 
the two brothers of Cecil Calvert 
sailed up the Potomac with over 
three hundred "pilgrims," pur- 
chased an Indian village, and 
planted their first settlement, St. 
Mary's. Here, in keeping with 
the wishes of the founder, reli- 
gious toleration was established. 
47. A New Kind of Colony. Maryland differed 
from Virginia not only in the people who settled it, but 
particularly in the powers of government granted by 
the king. In fact, Charles I. gave all his own right to 
govern the colony to his friend, Lord Baltimore, who 
thus became its owner or proprietor. 

In Virginia the king could appoint the governor and 
veto laws passed by the assembly, but in Maryland 
these powers belonged to Lord Baltimore. In England 
the king alone could appoint judges and grant titles of 
nobility, while in Maryland such powers were exercised 
by the proprietor. For all this authority two Indian 
arrows must be delivered to the king every year as a 
token of loyalty, and one-fifth of all gold and silver, if 
any should be found. 




A CATHOLIC TRIEST OF THE 
MARYLAND COLONY 



Maryland : A New Kind of Colony 



43 



Baltimore, therefore, was almost a king in Maryland. 
But he gave the people self-government by establishing 
a representative assembly 
very much like the House 
of Burgesses. Maryland 
profited by the sad experi- 
ence of Virginia. Her 
settlers did not suffer from 
hunger and disease, for in- 
stead of being "fine gentle- 
men" and adventurers they 
were industrious, seeking 
homes for their families 
and relief from persecu- 
tion. Instead of hunting 
for gold they raised to- 
bacco, wheat, and corn for 
export, and won the friend- 
ship of the Indians at the 
very beginning by just 
treatment. 

48. Troubles of the Proprietors. But Maryland's 
troubles came from a different source. The Virginians 
were displeased because Maryland had been a part 
of their own territory and because her proprietor 
was a Catholic. Besides, a high Virginian ofScer, 
William Claiborne, had built a trading post on Kent 
Island in Chesapeake Bay, before the grant of Maryland 
was made. He refused to give up his rich trade in furs 
and to submit to Lord Baltimore's authority. Claiborne 
was driven out by an armed force, but bided his time. 

We have seen that many Puritans, driven out of Vir- 
ginia, went to Maryland. Their settlement, first called 
Providence, but later Annapolis, became the rival of St. 
Mary's. During the civil war in England (§ 39), Lord 




QUEEN HENRIETTA MARIA 

Fro7n a portrait painted by Sir Anthony 
Vandyke^ in the gallery at Windsor Castle 



44 



The OtJicr SoiitJicrn Colonies 







Phir'acfe'lpnial 



'Original charter boundary as claimed by proprietors^^:^>- ^jjj^ ,;gy:^^;^i 

present boundary 

THE MARYLAND COLONY 

Showing the early settlements and the original and present boundaries 
(See also map on page 91) 

Baltimore and the Catholics sided with Charles I., while 
the Puritans sided with Cromwell. Claiborne took 
advantage of these quarrels, and the Puritans, forgetting 
the kindness of Baltimore's rule, joined Claiborne and 
captured St, Mary's. 

49. Baltimores Finally Hold Maryland. After Crom- 
well's commissioners had received the surrender of 
Virginia they turned their attention to Maryland. Clai- 
borne was one of the commissioners. They set up their 
own authority, and decided that no Catholic should be 
elected to the assembly, while the assembly went even 
further and ungenerously passed an act refusing tolera- 
tion to Catholics. In 1655 another battle was fought and 
the Catholics were once more defeated, leaving one-third 
of their little army on the field. 

But that greatest of Puritans, Oliver Cromwell, knew 
how to be just, as well as stem ; he restored Lord Balti- 



The Carolinas : The Home of Many Kinds of Settlers 45 



more's authority, on his promising perpetual toleration. 
On the other hand, Virginia made grants to Claiborne 
for his loss of Kent Island and the fur trade. Maryland 
was now happy, grew rapidly, and prospered for many 
years. She did not make as many changes in gov- 
ernment, after the king was restored, as Virginia did, 
although voting was limited to men who owned fifty 
acres or considerable other property. 

The revolution in England in 1688 drove James II. 
from the throne, partly be- 
cause the English people 
believed that he was trying to 
overthrow both their govern- 
ment and their religion. In- 
fluenced by the news of the 
struggle in England, the 
Protestants in Maryland, who 
were now in a large majority, 
overthrew the authority of 
Lord Baltimore again. Will- 
iam and Mary, who succeeded 
King James, made Maryland a 
royal province, and all classes 
were compelled to pay taxes 
to support the Church of Eng- 
land. Later, however, the 
Baltimores regained their au- 
thority and did not lose it un- 
til the American Revolution, in which struggle no troops 
did better service than the "Maryland Continentals." 

THE CAROLINAS: THE HOME OF MANY KINDS OF SETTLERS 

50. Early Settlements and the Struggle for Self-gov- 
ernment. North and South Carolina were first known 
simply as Carolina. A few Virginians very early made 
their way into this region ; some to escape persecution, 




CECIL CALVERT 

Second Lord Baltimore. After i 
portrait in possession of the Mary- 
land Historical Society 



46 



TJie Other Southern Colonics 



others to seek traffic with the Indians, and still others 
to find homes. In 1653 a number of Virginians were 
encouraged by grants from the House of Burgesses to 
settle on Albemarle Sound. Later a few New Englanders 
tried to establish a settlement at the mouth of the Cape 
Fear River, but soon gave up the attempt and left the 
place to be occupied by people from Barbados (1664). 

The next important settlement was made in the 
southern part of Carolina at the mouth of the Ashley and 

Cooper rivers and 



named Charles- 
ton (1670). In 
time it proved 
itself a second 
" barrier " against 
the Spaniard 
(§38). This most 
vigorous of the 
Carolina settle- 
ments was begun 
by emigrants di- 
rect from Eng- 
land, sent out by 
the new owners 
of the colony. In 





' d)A R O LUI IS A 

-f. Fayettev 

SOUTH 
CAROLINA 



vp»Charleston 

>Tort Royal 
annali 

Frederica /7j6 



I Caroline /j6^ 
^it. Augustine 

1 ^ 











THE CAROLINA AND GEORGIA COLONIES 

The divisions here shoivn remained until the 
close oj the Revolution 



1663 King Charles II. had given the whole of the Car- 
olinas to eight of his favorites. They were to own the 
land and, if possible, the people too. 

John Locke, a great English philosopher, and Lord 
Shaftsbury, one of the proprietors, drew a plan of gov- 
ernment called the " Grand Model." It was entirely too 
aristocratic, however, since it provided for a great num- 
ber of officers with absurd titles, who had the entire 
government in their own hands. The plan could not 
have been carried out in England, and much less in 



The Carolinas : The Home of Many Kinds of Settlers 47 



America. The people of the Carolinas would have noth- 
ing to do with a scheme that gave a laboring man 
scarcely more rights than a slave. This plan of govern- 
ment made the settlers suspicious of the proprietors and 
of the governors sent over by them. 

51. Overthrow of the Proprietors. Albemarle and 
Charleston at first had separate governors. The forn*er 
colony was restless and turbulent and several times 
showed its independent spirit by overthrowing its 
tyrannical officials. Charleston got on better at the 
beginning and grew rapidly. But in 1691 it also drove 
out an oppressive governor, and the proprietors united 
the two provinces. 

Under a Quaker governor, John Archdale, the united 
colonies quieted down and prospered. Opposition to the 
Church of England compelled toleration 
for all Protestant sects. But the proprie- 
tors could not really win the sympathy of 
the colonists. Troubles between them 
once more broke out, and finally in 1729 
the proprietors sold out their rights to the 
king. The Carolinas were again divided 
and remained royal provinces down to 
the Revolution. (See map, page 46.) 

52. The People of North Carolina. 
The character of the people of Carolina 
is seen in the way in which they defended 
their rights against the proprietors and 
bad governors. The Carolinas differed 
from Virginia in having more kinds of 
people. In North Carolina the Quakers f^/.^iS,?{/ 
were numerous and influential. The 
majority of the population were English, 
but in no other southern colony were the non-English 
settlers so numerous. The Scotch-Irish Presbyterians 







A TYPICAL SCOTCH 
HIGHLANDER 

i - 

Opposition to the 

king, and settled 

in Carolina 



48 



TJie Other Southern Colonies 




who settled here were a hardy, vigorous people, driven 
to America by the unfriendly laws of Parliament aimed 
against Irish manufacturers and 
Irish Presbyterians. A few Swiss 
and Germans early settled along 
the seacoast. Afterward other 
Germans from Pennsylvania 
moved into the mountain valleys. 
But the most romantic portion 
of the population came latest. 
(3nly a generation before the Rev- 
olution there arrived a band of 
Scotch Highlanders who had re- 
belled against the English king 
and who had been driven from 
their native land by severe laws. 

53. The People of South Caro- 
lina. A small number of Germans, 
Scotch-Irish, and Highlanders also 
made their way into South Carolina. But the most inter- 
esting part of the non-English population were the 
French Huguenots, driven from their beautiful country 
by the cruelty of their king. They were Protestants and 
he was a Catholic. The Huguenots added an industrious 
and educated element to the Charleston colony, and 
many of their descendants stand high among Carolina's 
famous men. 

54. Difference Between the Carolinas. The two 
Carolinas also differed from one another in industries. 
The people of North Carolina were small farmers, many 
of whom had no slaves, while South Carolina had great 
plantations, and by 1750 contained more negroes than 
whites. North Carolina had a larger number of occupa- 
tions than South Carolina, where the settlers became rich 
chiefly by growing rice in the swamps, and later by 



A HUGUENOT GENTLEMAN 



Georgia : The Final Barrier 



49 



cultivating- indigo. Charleston became the rice and 
indigo town of America. 

In North Carolina the population was scattered, as 
in Virginia and Maryland, but in South Carolina it was 
gathered around Charleston. The large planters lived in 
the city and only visited their plantations. The effect was 
to make Charleston the greatest center of social life in 
the southern colonies. 




flQ.^^ 



A CAROLINA COLONIAL MANSION 

Simplicity and comfort in architecture were brought from England by the settlers 

Here the owner of hundreds of acres and hundreds 
of slaves lived and displayed his wealth and pride. He 
was proud of his great mansion with its imported furni- 
ture, broad piazzas, and wide halls ; of his many house- 
servants, of his fine carriage with his coat of arms on its 
windows, and of his spirited horses. He was generous in 
entertaining visitors, and gave frequent dinners, balls, 
and supper parties. Charleston boasted some good pri- 
vate schools and a number of private libraries. 

GEORGIA: THE FINAL BARRIER 

55. Oglethorpe Plants Still Another Kind of Colony 

(1732). Georgia was the last of the thirteen colonies, and 
was not settled until long after the Carolinas. General 



so 



The Other Southern Colonies 



Oglethorpe, who had won renown as a soldier and as a 
member of Parliament, became interested in English 
prisons. He was shocked at the hopeless condition of 
the men in jail for debt. An honest man might be 
imprisoned for owing less than a dollar, and by fines 
put on him by corrupt jailors, he might be held while 
his family was in poverty, till his health was broken 
down by the foul prison. The heart of Oglethorpe was 
greatly touched, and he conceived the idea of taking 
these debtors to a colony where they might begin life 
anew with hope of success. (See map, page 46.) 

Another purpose moved Oglethorpe and other Eng- 
lishmen to plant a new colony. The time had come to 
push Raleigh's " barrier " farther south. The Spaniards 
were now alarmed at the progress of the English in 
America, and hated the colony of South Carolina in par- 
ticular, as they looked upon it as being in Spanish terri- 
tory. The Spaniards had already attacked and destroyed 




A CHARLESTON MANSION 



From a pbotofrftpk 



the English outpost at Port Royal, and a French expe- 
dition against Charleston in 1706 was encouraged by 
them. Georgia was a new outpost against the Spaniards. 



Georgia : The FtJial Barrier 



51 



For Oglethorpe's noble objects about five hundred 
thousand dollars were raised by vote of Parliament and 
by private subscription. 
A number of men 
formed an "associa- 
tion," received a char- 
ter, named the colony 
after George II., and 
made the founder gov- 
ernor. For the first 
twenty-one years the 
settlers were to take no 
part in their govern- ., 
ment, and slaves and 
strong drink were pro- 
hibited. 

56. Savannah Set- 
tled. As news of Ogle- 
thorpe's undertaking 
spread, plenty of people 
wanted to embark for 
the new colony, especially since free passage, free 
tools, and free lands were promised. Thirty-five fami- 
lies settled Savannah early in 1733. Later Oglethorpe 
brought over more settlers, and with them came Charles 
and John Wesley, the latter as a missionary to the 
Indians. 

57. The Colony Proves Itself a Third Barrier. 
Just as Georgia was an outpost for the Carolinas, so 
Georgia must have some town as its outpost against the 
Spaniards. For this purpose Frederica was founded (1736) 
well down toward Florida, and was protected by a fort. 

In 1739 England and Spain were at war. General 
Oglethorpe did not wait for the enemy to advance, but 
attacked the Spanish stronghold, St. Augustine. He was 




JAMES EDWARD OGLETHORPE 

From an original portrait painted by Simon 
Francois Ravenet,fr07n a tnezzotint by Bur- 
ford in the print room at the British Museum 



52 Massachusetts 

unsuccessful, and the Spaniards retaliated by attacking 
Frederica with a fleet and an army of five thousand 
men. Although Oglethorpe had but eight hundred men, 
he won a victory, and again tried to capture St. Augus- 
tine. Once more he failed, but the Spaniard had been 
taught a lesson, and never afterward attacked the Eng- 
lish of the southern colonies. A line of settlements had 
now made good England's claim along the Atlantic coast 
from Maryland to Georgia. 

58. Growth of the Colony. Georgia grew rapidly, and 
other classes of people were soon added to the popula- 
tion. Among them were Germans and Scotch High- 
landers. But the prohibitions against rum and slaves 
displeased the settlers and so were finally withdrawn. 

In addition to raising rice, indigo, and tobacco, Georgia 
undertook to produce silk, but this industry did not pros- 
per, especially after the introduction of slaves. In 1752 
Georgia became a royal province, and was soon involved 
in the current of the Revolution. 

MASSACHUSETTS 

THE PILGRIMS SETTLE PLYMOUTH 

59. Early English Efforts in New England. After 

1600, Englishmen frequently visited various parts of the 
New England coast; some were bent on exploration, 
others on trade with the Indians, and still others on 
making settlements. We know that the charter of 1606 
gave "North Virginia" to the Plymouth Company. (See 
map, page 26.) In the same year that Captain Newport 
carried his colony to the banks of the James, George 
Popham sailed with one hundred and twenty emigrants 
for the mouth of the Kennebec, but the winter was so 
severe that the attempt to found a settlement had to be 
abandoned. 

In 16 14 Captain John Smith explored this region, 




Claims based on Disco-very 
Exploration and Occupancy 

English nHJ SpanishI 1 

French ^ZI\ Dulch 
Swedish r3!l 



The Pilgrims Settle Plymouth 



53 



mapped the coast line, and named the country "New 
England." But the planting of a line of colonies along 
this coast, which would keep the French in Canada just 
as the southern colonies kept the Spaniards in Florida, 
was to be the work of a very different kind of people 
from John Smith and the Plymouth Company. 

60. The Puritans, their Origin and Ideas. We have 
already met the Puritans (§40), but we have not learned 
who they were, what they wanted, or why they came to 
America. The change from 
the Catholic to the Protestant 
religion in England was very 
gradual. Some Englishmen 
remained Catholic, others 
changed slowly and became ^ 
members of the English or 
Established church, while still 
others changed their ideas 
more rapidly and became 
Puritans. These were so 
called because they insisted 
on "purifying" the Church of 
England by getting rid of 
some of its ceremonies. They 
objected especially to making 
the sign of the cross, to using 
the ring in marriage, and to the wearing of the surplice 
by clergymen. 

At first, most of the Puritans did not really want 
to form a church of their own. But in the time of 
Elizabeth, and later under James I., some of them felt 
forced to leave the Established church and worship in 
private places. Such persons were called Separatists. 
They were a simple-minded folk, very religious and 
rather democratic, and wanted no great head to the 




A PURITAN MINISTER 



54 



Massachusetts 



church like the king. The government of England, foL 
lowing the custom of that time, punished them severely 
for such opinions. The officers broke up their meetings, 
imprisoned their leaders, and even hanged some of them. 
6i. The Separatists Become Pilgrims. Among the 
Separatists was a small congregation in the town of 
Scrooby, in Nottinghamshire. Its members were mostly 
working people who tilled the soil and watched the 
flocks, but their pastor was the learned and gentle John 
Robinson, and their elder, William Brewster, a man who 
had held high office under Elizabeth. 

Early in the reign of James I. the little band 
at Scrooby fled to Holland and settled at Leiden. 
Although they were welcome in Holland, Holland was 
not England and Dutchmen were not Englishmen. 
Like all men they loved their native land best, and 
longed to be under its flag. Besides, in a few years, by 
the death of the aged and the marriage of the young^ 
their descendants would become Hollanders. 

62. The Voy- 
age to America ; 
The Compact ; 
Plymouth Rock. 
The Pilgrims, as 
they now called 
themselves, de- 
cided to seek a new 
home in America. 
The London Com- 
pany gave them 
permission to set- 
tle within its 
grant, and a num- 
ber of English merchants loaned them money. The 
king agreed not to trouble them, but would give them 




P^^^§ti^^::% 




THE "MAYFLOWER" ON ITS WAY TO AMERICA 



The Pilgrims Settle Plymouth 



55 



no charter. In 1620 Pastor Robinson and others who 
remained in Holland bade the Pilgrims a sad farewell. 
They first sailed for England, where about one hundred 
finally embarked in the " Mayflower " for America. 

After a rough voyage, which tried the bravest hearts, 
and which drove them far out of their intended way, the 
Pilgrims saw the shores of Cape Cod (November 9th). 
They had 



hoped to 
reach land 
near the 
mouth of the 
Hudson, but 
storms had 
driven them 
northward. 

While still 
on board 
the "May- 
flower,"they 
drew up and 



Sig'ned an signing the compact in the cabin of thk"mayflower' 



agreement or compact, which pledged loyalty to James 
I., their bitter enemy, and bound them to make "just 
and equal laws for the general good of the colony." John 
Carver was elected their first governor. (See page li.) 

After examining the coast they selected Plymouth 
Harbor as their home. (See map, page 60.) At their 
landing place was a boulder — afterward named "Ply- 
mouth Rock" — which is still kept in memory of the 
Pilgrims. 

6?- The Struggle for Existence. Amid snow and ice 
th'OS. ,tle colony battled with disease and death. Their 
lo^.lbuses did not protect them very well, and their food 
waji^heot of the best. They had been accustomed to the 




56 



Massachusetts 



gentler climate of England and Holland, and they did not 
yet know how, or have the time, to build strong and warm 

houses. Neither did 
they yet know much 
about taking the wild 
animals for food and 
clothing. The natural 
result was that before 
spring came with its 
" cheer, half of them 
were in their graves, 
and many of the living 
were broken in health, 
But Brewster, Brad- 
ford, Winslow, and 
that bold soldier. Miles 
' Standish, were still 
alive. When the "May. 
flower" went back to 
England not a man, 
woman, or child re- 
turned. 

New emigrants from Leiden made food scarcer, but 
a treaty with the neighboring chief, Massasoit, brought 
safety for many years and made it easier to secure 
supplies. The skill of Governor Bradford, and the 
courage of Miles Standish and his little army, kept the 
Indians from doing harm to the settlement. 

In a few years the colonists felt able to repay the 
merchants who had furnished them the means to come 
to America. Courage and perseverance had overcome 
the hardships of the wilderness, and the second ~«erma- 
nent English colony in America was founded. 

64. The True Greatness of the Pilgrims. Tl^ -ue 
glory of Plymouth was not in its size or in its wea' , but 




|||^Mll( 



From a photogrftpb 



PLYMOUTH KOCK TO-DAY, SHELTERED BY A 
GRANITE CANOPY 



The Great Puritan Migration 



57 



in the ideas and the spirit of its people. It never became 
great in population or resources; in 1630 there were but 
three hundred inhabitants, and in the next dozen years 
this number grew to only about one thousand. The 
land was not rich, and the people divided their time 
between farming, fishing, and fur trading. They did not 
become wealthy, but they were contented. 

The Pilgrims were among the most democratic people 
in the world. They had no church officers or other 
rulers not elected by themselves. They were more tol- 
erant than any of the New England colonies except 
Rhode Island. Their compact pledged them to seek only 
the common good, and they were true to their pledge. 

Every year excepting five, until 1657, they came to- 
gether in town 

meetingand rj p| 

elect e d the 
faithful Brad- 
ford governor. 
All other im- 
portant ques- 
tions, such as 
raising money 
and m a'k i n g 
laws, came be- 
fore all the men 
of proper age in 
town meeting, where they were discussed and then voted 
upon. The noble lesson of devotion to duty and of 
democracy in government is the imperishable glory of 
the Pilgrim Fathers. 

THE GREAT PURITAN MIGRATION FOUNDS THE BAY COLONY 

65. The Massachusetts Company. The Puritans 
who had remained in the Established church only put 
off the day of separation. James I. drove hundreds of 




PILGRIM FURNITURE BROUGHT OVER ON THE 
"MAYFLOWER" 



58 



Massachusetts 



their ministers from their positions. Charles I. did 
even worse. He dismissed his Parliament for opposing 
his wishes in this and other matters, and resolved never 
to call another. Before that, however, the Puritans had 
felt that their political and religious rights were in dan- 
ger in England, and had resolved to establish these rights 
in the New World, as the Pilgrims had done before. 

A number of Puritan leaders formed a company and 
obtained a grant of land. Strangely enough, Charles 

gave them a very liberal 
charter (1629), by which they 
could do about as they 
pleased in their colony except 
that no laws were to be 
made contrary to the laws of 
England. Each year the 
company was to elect a gov- 
ernor, a deputy governor, 
and eighteen "assistants." 
The meeting of the company 
was called the General Court. 
The leaders were men of 
education and influence in 
England, and soon three 
hundred people tinder John 
Endicott were settled at 
Salem, on the New England coast. 

66. The Bay Colony (1630). The Puritan leaders 
now decided to send the charter to America, and elected 
sturdy John Winthrop governor of the colony. In 1630 
he sailed with a fleet of eleven vessels, carrying over 
seven hundred emigrants, who established a colony at 
Boston. Over twenty thousand more followed in the next 
ten years and settled in various parts of New England. 
Although the Puritans were now free to plant a new 




JOHN WINTHROP 

From a portrait painted by John 
Singleton Copley: reproductd by 
permission of the trustees of Har- 
vard University 



Growth in Poiitics and Religion 59 

church and a new government in a new world, they 
parted sorrowfully from England, their native land. As 
her hills were fading from view, one of them wrote: 
" We cannot part from our native country without much 
sadness of heart and many tears in our eyes." 

67. Massachusetts a Typical New England Colony. 
Winthrop's colonists named their settlement Boston to 
remind them of Boston in England. The hundreds who 
immediately followed founded new towns near by. 
Among these were Charlestown, already partly settled; 
Newtown, afterward Cambridge ; Watertown, Roxbury, 
Dorchester, and others. (See map, page 60.) 

The making of many little settlements was natural, 
since most of the people came as church congregations, 
led by their faithful pastors who had been through the 
fire of persecution with them. Each group selected its 
own location and went bravely to work to make homes in 
the new land. The arrival of a new group of emigrants 
meant the making of a new town, and thus Massachusetts 
became covered with towns, as did the other colonies of 
New England. What the plantations were to the south- 
ern colonies the towns were to New England. 

GROWTH IN POLITICS AND RELIGION 

68. Mixing Politics and Religion. The Puritan, 
having suffered so much for both his political and 
religious beliefs, was determined to follow his own ideas. 
On arriving in America he put aside very quietly the 
authority of the Episcopal church, and became as much 
a Separatist as the Pilgrim. If any one in Massachusetts 
refused to comply with this change he was sent back to 
England or punished in some other way. None but 
Puritans were wanted in the colony. 

The very rapid increase of settlers led to making a law 
that only members of the Puritan church could vote ( 1 63 1 ). 
This was not a very great hardship at first, because 



6o 



Massachusetts 



the majority were members of some Puritan congrega- 
tion, and because very few people had the right to vote 

in England; 
but it placed 
the entire con- 
trol of the gov- 
ernment in the 
hands of the 
Puritans. This 
"mixing poli- 
tics and reli- 
gion" led to 
some very in- 
teresting re- 
sults. 

69. Begin- 
ning to Differ. 
It was sim- 
ply impossible 
for stro n g- 
minded men 
and women like 
the Puritans 
always to think 
alike. It was 
a sign of progress for them to differ and dispute. At 
first the governor and the "assistants" alone made laws, 
but in 1 63 1 Watertown refused to pay a tax because she 
was not represented in the General Court (§ 65). Her 
people highly prized the right of representation, for 
they and their fathers had suffered much in England to 
preserve it (§ 65). 

Watertown's protest led to the yearly election of 
deputies from each town to help govern. These depu- 
ties were more democratic than the governor and the 




THE SETTLEMENTS AI-ONG THE NEW ENGLAND COAST 



Groivih in Politics and Relizion 



61 



"assistants," and, after a bitter quarrel, in Avhicli the depu- 
ties took sides with a poor widow while the "assistants" 
favored a rich man, they separated, thus establishing- 
two houses of the General Court or Legislature (1641). 

70. Separation ; Emigration to Connecticut (1636). 
The growth of differences in religious and political 
opinions gradually formed two parties. Governor Win- 
throp's words show what the ruling party thought: 
" The best part (of the people) is always the least, and 
of that best part the wiser is always the lesser." The 
words of that learned minister, Thomas Hooker, voice 
the views of the other party : " In matters which concern 
the common good, a general council chosen by all to 
transact business which concerns all, I conceive most suit- 
able to rule and most safe for the relief of the whole." 

Hooker and his followers, not liking the undemocratic 
character of the government, and being dissatisfied with 
their location, emigrated (1636) to the rich valley of the 
Connecticut. (§§ 87-93. See also map, page 72.) 

71. Banishment of Roger Williams (1636). The two 
parties in Massachusetts came to a serious clash over 
the teachings of 
Roger Williams, a 
minister at Salem. 
He was a man of 
great ability and 
advanced ideas, 
who loved de- 
bate. He held 
that people ought 
not to be punished 
for religious opin- 
ions and for staying away from church. This seems 
reasonable to us, but England and other nations did 
punish men for their beliefs, and so did the Bay Colony 




THE ROGER WILLIAMS CHURCH AT SALEM, i6Sx 



62 Massachusetts 

But other questions were mixed with this one. Roger 
Williams asserted that no king had the right to give 
away the lands of the Indians by means of chart-ers. 
These opinions were very dangerous just then, because 
Charles I. was already planning (1635) to take away the 
charter he had granted to the Massachusetts Company. 
Had he caught a whisper of such great contempt for his 
royal authority, nothing could have vsaved the charter. 

The people took sides over this and other questions, 
and the colony was divided when it should have been 
united. The General Court tried Roger Williams and 
decided by a small majority that he must go back to 
England. But he had no notion of doing so, and in 
midwinter made his way into the wilderness. He later 
became the founder of Rhode Island, the most tolerant 
and democratic of New England colonies. 

72. Mrs. Hutchinson (1638). This excitement had 
hardly quieted down before a greater one arose over the 
teachings of Mrs. Anne Hutchinson. She drew large 
audiences in Boston each week, and discussed deep reli- 
gious questions in such a way as to displease the lead- 
ing ministers of the colony and the officers of the gov- 
ernment. However, a few ministers and the governor, 
Sir Henry Vane, belonged to her party. Feeling ran 
high and even interfered with preparations for the 
war against the Pequot Indians (§ 88). Mrs. Hutchinson 
was banished (1638), and with some of her followers 
moved to Rhode Island, while others settled towns in 
what became New Hampshire. (See map, page 60.) 

73. The Body of Liberties (1641). All this excite- 
ment and discussion made men think. The more they 
thought over their disputes, the more they were deter- 
mined to have a body of written laws. The charter was 
written, but it did not tell what rights belonged to the 
people. 



Beginnings of Education 63 

In 1 64 1, therefore, Nathaniel Ward, once a lawyer 
but now a minister, presented one hundred laws to the 
General Court. These were discussed and sent around 
for the towns to examine. Thus Massachusetts, follow- 
ing the example of Connecticut (1639), established a set 
of written laws, The Body of Liberties, to which the 
poorest and weakest could appeal for protection. 

BEGINNINGS OF EDUCATION 

74. Why the Puritans Favored Education. No 

class in England believed more in learning than the 
Puritans, and of these, few encouraged it more than 
those emigrating to America. The custom in New 
England of settling in towns was far more favorable to 
schools than the southern way of settling on planta- 
tions (§37). 

The Puritans were earnest students of the Bible, and 
each wanted at least to be able to read it for himself. 
Besides, the Puritan ministers were well-educated men, 
having, as a rule, studied at Cambridge University. 
The people talked over the sermons heard on Sunday, 
and opposed or defended the minister's ideas. This 
frequent discussion made men wish to learn. 

75. Harvard College. The first school founded in 
New England was the Boston Latin School, although 
private teaching had been going on from the beginning. 
In 1636 the General Court voted four hundred pounds 
for a college in Newtown. Two years later John Har- 
vard gave his valuable library and about seven hundred 
and fifty pounds to the new institution, which then took 
his name. Newtown was afterward called Cambridge, 
to keep alive the memories of that English Cambridge 
where so many Puritan leaders had studied. 

76. The First Printing Press ; Founding of Public 
Schools. The year 1639 was a most important one in 
our history. It was not only the year of the first written 



64 Massacniisetts 

constitution in America (§ 89), but of our first printing 
press and first free public school. The printing press 
was set up at Cambridge and the public school- estab- 
lished at Dorchester. A little later it was ordered that 
" none of the brethren shall suffer so much barbarism in 
their families as not to teach their children and appren- 
tices ... to read the English tongue." To make 
sure that the children were taught to read, the General 
Court commanded every township of fifty householders 
to set up a school for reading and writing, and each town 
of one hundred householders to establish a grammar 
school. These were the beginnings of a system of free 
public schools. 

OUTSIDE DANGERS AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES 

77. The First Danger from England (1635). During 
the excitement over Roger Williams and Mrs. Hutch- 
inson, Massachusetts had been in danger of losing her 
charter. Not all the settlers liked the stern rule of the 
Bay Colony. Some complained to the king that the peo- 
ple of Massachusetts were now Separatists, were perse- 
cuting the people of the English church, and were even 
setting up an independent government. This looked to 
the king like rebellion and he immediately ordered Mas- 
sachusetts to give up her charter. 

When the little colony heard this news it was not 
frightened. The governor called in the "assistants" and 
the ministers for advice, who promptly refused to accept 
a governor from the king, and decided to " defend our 
lawful possessions if we are able." New forts were built 
and the men were ordered to practice military drill ; but 
before the king could take away the charter he had quar- 
reled with Parliament and there was war in England (§ 39). 

78. The New England Confederation (1643). The 
dangers from England, the claims of the Dutch to the 
Connecticut valley, the presence of the French in the 



Outside Dangers and Their Consequences 65 

north, and the war with the Pequot Indians (§88), 
led the colonists of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, 
Connecticut, and New Haven to form a union, Rhode 
Island was not permitted to join, because Plymouth 
claimed her and because the other colonies thought 
Rhode Island was not governed strictly enough. Each 
colony sent two delegates to the union, in order to make 
them equal in power, but Massachusetts, with as many 
people as the other three colonies taken together, natu- 
rally had more influence than the others. 

This New England league lasted over forty years 
and taught its people the hard, though valuable, lesson 
of now and then giving up supposed advantages for the 
common good. Although it was finally disbanded (1684), 
this lesson was remembered when the thirteen colonies 
were forming a greater union in the next century. 

79. The Coming of the Quakers (1656). The Quak- 
ers, a new sect, opposed all forms and ceremonies in 
religion, Puritan as well as Episcopal (§§ 1 14-1 15). Eng- 
land soon had her jails full of them, but their zeal was 
not checked. Fired by the desire to make converts, two 
Quaker women came to Boston. They were thrust into 
jail and then sent away by the same ship that brought 
them over. More came, for not even the prison, or 
cropping of the ears, or boring of the tongue, or even 
hanging could keep them away. The league recom- 
mended the death penalty, but only in Massachusetts, 
where four Quakers were hanged, was the law enforced. 

Meanwhile public opinion was so aroused that when 
another Quaker, Wenlock Christison, was thrown into 
jail, mutterings of rebellion were heard. The officers 
were alarmed, and the court hesitated to condemn him. 

After the court had debated two weeks, grim old John 
Endicott, who presided, became disgusted with their hesi- 
tation. On the last day of the trial he arose in great 



66 



Massachusetts 




anger, struck the table with his fist, scolded the judges for 
their cowardice, and declared he " was ready to go back to 

England!" Christison was 
condemned, but not exe- 
cuted, public opinion 
finally forcing the repeal of 
the death penalty. This 
was a deadly blow at the 
Puritan effort to make all 
men think alike or keep 
those who differed out of 
Massachusetts. Quakers, 
I^aptists, and people of 
(jther sects continued to 
come, and gradually won 
toleration. 

80. King Philip's War 
(1675). One of the saddest 
results of the settlement of 
America was that the 
Indians had to be driven 
from their homes. When the settlers moved into the 
Connecticut region the Pequots made war upon them 
(1637), but the tribe was almost destroyed (§88). The 
other Indians remembered this lesson until a new gener- 
ation grew up. 

In 1675 the Wampanoag Indians, under their great 
leader, "King Philip," successor of the faithful Massasoit, 
began war. Philip saw he must destroy the English or 
forever give up his hunting grounds. No quarter was 
shown on either side. Indian wigwams and white men's 
houses were burned and families murdered. After 
nearly two years of fighting, one-tenth of New England's 
soldiers had been killed, but the Indian power was com- 
pletely broken. When Philip's wife and boy were taken 



JOHN ENDICOIT 

From a portrait painted by John 

Stnibert. Reproduced by permission 

of the Massachusetts Historical 

Society, Boston, Massachusetts 



Outside Dangers and Their Consequences 6"/ 

and sold as slaves he said, " Now my heart breaks. I am 
ready to die." He was slain soon after, and the Indians 
in this portion of the country never again made war on 
the white man. 

8i. Massachusetts Loses Its Charter (1684). During 
King Philip's war Massachusetts was again threatened 
with danger from England. While Cromwell ruled 
England, the Puritans in New England were safe. But 
Charles II. (1660-1685) was no friend to Puritans any- 
where. They had executed his father and had made 
Charles himself a wanderer for many years (§40). 
Besides, some of the judges who had condemned his 
father were hiding in New England. 

Stories of how Massachusetts persecuted Quakers and 
violated the navigation laws (§ 43) soon reached the 
king's ears. He commanded Massachusetts to cease 
persecution, to permit Episcopalians to worship, and 
to abolish the requirement of church membership for 
voting. Massachusetts did not like this meddling with 
her government, and opposed the changes demanded. 
The longer Charles II. reigned, the more he became 
dissatisfied with Massachusetts. Suddenly, in 1684, he 
ordered the charter taken away and Massachusetts 
became a royal province. 

82. Governor Andros Strikes at New England Liberty 
(1685-1689). Charles II. died before he gave Massachu- 
setts a new government. But his brother, James II. 
(1685-1688), was still more bent on ruling to suit himself, 
and made Sir Edmund Andros viceroy over all New Eng- 
land, New York, and New Jersey. (See map, page 69.) 

Andros was not only to rule in place of the king, but 
to govern instead of the people. The General Court, the 
town meetings, and the courts of justice were abolished. 
People were taxed without their consent, imprisoned 
without trial, and browbeaten for raising objections. 



68 



Mdssm /in Sifts 



The public schools were neglected, but religious tolera- 
tion was established. 

New England was beginning to plan resistance to 

Andros' high-handed measures, when, in April, 1689, 

came the news that a great revolution had taken place 

in England, and that William and Mary were on the 

throne. The tyrant. King James, had fled to France. 

This was the spark that 
caused the explosion. 

83. Fall of Andros. One 
day the commander of the 
war vessel which was sta- 
tioned in Boston Harbor 
came on shore. The ship 
carpenters who were col- 
lected on the pier arrested 
him. Great excitement fol- 
lowed ; the sheriff tried to 
stop it, but the crowd 
arrested him, too. The 
boys of the town gathered 
with clubs in their hands, 
drums beat the alarm, sig- 
nal fires blazed on Beacon 
Hill, and Andros and his 

From a plwtographof tlie original taint- ofilCCrS fled tO the fort. 
ing in the possession of Amias Charles rryi r 

Andros, Esq., of London 1 he f Omicr gOVCmor, 

Bradstreet, now appeared, and the people gave a mighty 
shout. A committee of safety was appointed and Boston 
was ready to fight for its liberties. A thousand soldiers 
gathered at Charlestown, and the next day hundreds of 
men from the country, headed by a schoolmaster, came 
swarming in to fight. The governor's castle was taken, 
the warship captured, and the forts seized. Andros sur- 
rendered, and New England was again free. 




SIR EDMUND ANDROS 



Maine and Nctu Hampshire 



69 



84. The New Charter. The victory over Andros 
showed how promptly and powerfully Massachusetts 
could act, because her people lived in towns near together. 
But although the Bay Col- 
ony wanted the old char- 
ter back, King William 
sent her a different one 
(1691). The new charter 
added Plymouth and 
Maine to Massachusetts; 
the king appointed the 
governor, who might veto 
any law not to his liking ; 
church membership as a 
condition for voting was 
abolished, and all sects 
were to be tolerated. 
Although Massachusetts 
accepted the new charter 
she frequently quarreled 
with the king's governors and thus kept alive down to 
the Revolution the spirit of opposition to royal authority. 

THE OTHER NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 

MAINE AND NEW HAMPSHIRE 

85, The Work of Mason and Gorges. The Plymouth 
Company had failed to establish a settlement in New 
England (§ 59), but some of its members were still 
interested' in America. Chief among these were Sir 
Ferdinando Gorges, a brave old soldier, and his friend 
Captain John Mason. They were strong Church of Eng- 
land men, who hated both the religious ideas of the 
Puritans and their democratic notions of government. 
Like Raleigh and Lord Baltimore, Gorges dreamed of 
becoming the lord of a province in the New World. 




THE REGION RULED BY SIR 
EDMUND ANDROS 



70 TJic Other New England Colonies 

Gorges and Mason were given a grant of the land 
between the Merrimac and the Kennebec rivers, a region 
which they called Maine. (See map, page 60.) In 1630 
their first colony was founded at Portsmouth. A little 
earlier, however, Dover had been settled by men bent on 
trade in fur and fish. But the two proprietors had already 
divided their property (1629). Mason came into posses- 
sion of the western part, which he called New Hamp- 
shire, while Gorges kept what w^as left. 

86. Other Settlements and Union with Massachu- 
setts. We have seen how some of the banished sup- 
porters of Mrs. Hutchinson fled to New Hampshire (§ 72). 
They settled the towns of Exeter and Hampton, but 
New Hampshire did not grow rapidly at first. As 
time went on, Puritans from Massachusetts came in 
faster than the supporters of Mason, and when he died 
Massachusetts annexed the whole territory. Though 
Charles H. separated them and made New Hamp- 
shire a royal province, it had really become a Puritan 
colony. 

Meanwhile Gorges had continued his attempts to 
colonize Maine. Saco was his chief settlement. The 
people did not take kindly to his aristocratic govern- 
ment, and disorder resulted. Progress was slow. At 
length, like New Hampshire, the colony was annexed 
by Massachusetts. Nevertheless, both grew in strength 
and formed strong barriers against the French moving 
southward. 

CONNECTICUT AND NEW HAVEN 

87. The Dutch Outwitted ; Connecticut Valley Set- 
tled. A race early began between the Dutch and the 
Puritans for possession of the beautiful Connecticut 
valley. The former had already settled New York, and, 
hoping to get possession of the fur trade, had built a 
fort at Hartford. But John Winthrop. Jr., cut them otf 



Connecticut and Nciv Haven 



71 



from the sea by erecting a fort, Saybrook, at the mouth 
of the Connecticut River (1635). The rich farming 
lands of this region were already attracting the Puritans 
of Massachusetts. The very next year, as we have seen, 
under the leadership of Thomas Hooker and other 
pastors, settlers from Massachusetts began to pour in. 
They soon founded three towns, Hartford, Wethersfield, 
and Windsor. (See map, 
page 72.) 

88. War with the 
Pequot Indians (1637). 
The sudden appearance 
of so many settlers in 
the very heart of the 
Indian country excited 
great alarm and anger 
among the powerful 
Pequot tribe. They 
urged the Narragansett 
Indians to join them in 
a common war against 
the invaders, but the 
good arguments of 
Roger Williams kept 
this tribe at peace. 

Connecticut then asked and received aid from Massa- 
chusetts and from Plymouth. Their combined force of 
seventy-seven whites and some friendly Indians invaded 
the Pequot country. They burned the Indian fort in a 
night attack and killed almost all the inmates. This blow 
practically ended the struggle, and no New England 
tribe ventured again on the warpath till the time of 
King Philip (§ 80). 

89. The First Popular Written Constitution (1639). 
The increase of population, the experiences of the 




ROGER WILLIAMS PLEADING WITH THE NAR- 
RAGANSETT CHIEF NOT TO GO TO WAR 



The Other New England Colonies 




THE CONNECTICUT AND NE%V HAVEN COLONIES 



Indian war, as 
well as a de- 
sire to found 
a well-gov- 
erned colony, 
led the three 
Connecticut 
towns (§87) 
to consider 
uniting under 
one general 
government. 

The liberal-minded Hooker favored the union of the 
towns, and preached a sermon declaring that the right 
to rule is found "in the free consent of the governed," 
and that the choice of officers "belongs unto the people 
by God's own allowance " (§ 70). 

In 1639 the citizens of the three towns met at 
Hartford and drew up a written constitution. This docu- 
ment provided for equal representation from the several 
towns, and the choice of a governor and council by the 
vote of all the free people, but it contained not a word 
about the king or Parliament. This union of towns 
made up the Connecticut colony. 

90. The Founding of New Haven (1638). In the 
midst of the excitement over Mrs. Hutchinson ($5 ^2), a 
large number of London Puritans had arrived in Boston, 
led by Theophilus Eaton, a rich merchant, and John 
Davenport, an able minister. They were bent on found- 
ing a new colony and were attracted by stories of the 
beauty and richness of the northern shore of Long 
Island Sound. The little company landed there in 1638, 
and Davenport, standing under the friendly branches of 
a spreading oak, preached a sermon. A day of fastmg 
and prayer was followed by the simple agreement that 



Connecticut and Netv Haven 73 

" all of them would be ordered by the rules which the 
Scriptures held forth to them." Thus the town of New 
Haven was founded. 

91. A Union of Towns Forms the New Haven 
Colony. Other settlements were quickly made. Among- 
them were Milford, Guilford, and Stamford. (See map, 
page 72.) These, with New Haven, desiring each other's 
good, formed a union (1643) which, in the same year, 
was admitted to the greater New England Confederation 
under the name of the Colony of New Haven. 

These four towns formed a government more like 
the Bay Colony than like Connecticut. Voting and office- 
holding were limited to church members. Each town 
was governed by "seven pillars of the church." Finally 
the General Court of New Haven ordered all officers to 
observe the laws of God as they were given by Moses 
(1644). Some of the acts passed by New Haven have 
been called the " Blue Laws," because they were so strict. 
Yet the laws of New Haven were not so severe in many 
respects as those of England. 

92. Connecticut and New Haven United (1662). 
Through the influence of the younger Winthrop, who 
was governor of the colony, Charles II. was induced to 
grant a very liberal charter to Connecticut. The popular 
government, so happily begun in 1639, was continued 
with royal authority. So firmly were the people attached 
to this system that it was not changed till 181 8. More- 
over, Charles disliked the people of the New Haven 
colony because they protected, from the officers sent to 
arrest them, Goffe and Whalley, two of the men who had 
condemned his father to death. Therefore, in addition 
to giving Connecticut a liberal charter, he gave her the 
whole colony of New Haven. Thus the two colonies 
became one under the name of Connecticut. 

93. The Conflict with Andros (1687). Under the new 



74 



The Other New England Colonies 



charter the people grew prosperous, built new towns, 
increased their schools, and were generally happy. But 
on an evil day the "Tyrant of New England," Governor 
Andros (j^ 82), came among them wearing a big wig and 
a scarlet coat, and guarded by a band of soldiers. He 
had come for their charter. The Assembly, one October 
afternoon, met to discuss the matter with Andros. A 
great crowd of excited people gathered. 

The debate lasted until evening, and candles were 
brought in. The charter was on the table. Their be- 
loved Governor Treat told the story of their hardships 
and sacrifices to make homes in the wilderness, and 
pleaded earnestly with Andros to spare the charter, but 
in vain. Suddenly the lights were blown out. When 
they were relighted, the charter was gone. Brave Cap- 
tain Wadsworth had seized 'it, borne it away, and hidden 
it safely in the hollow of a great oak. 

Nevertheless, Andros ruled Connecticut till the people 

of Massachusetts 
rose in rebellion. 
Then the charter 
was triumphantly 
brought from its 
hiding place anc^ 
Connecticut was 
once more free. 
This story, if not 
strictly true, well 
shows the feeling of 
the people toward 
Andros and toward 
their government. 
The tree was named 
the Charter Oak, and in the city of Hartford is a memo- 
rial tablet where it once stood. 




THE "CHARTER OAK " AS IT STOOD Al- 
ii AKIKORD, CONNECTICUT 



Rhode Island : the Most Democratic Colony 



75 



RHODE ISLAND: THE MOST DEMOCRATIC COLONY IN POLITICS 
AND RELIGION 

94. Roger Williams Plants Providence (1636). B5' 

the stern decision of Massachusetts, Roger Williams had 
been ordered to return to 
England, but he preferred 
the dangers of the New 
England wilderness in 
winter and the companion- 
ship of savage Indians 
(§71). " For fourteen weeks 
he was sorely tost in a 
bitter season, not knowing 
what bread or bed did 
mean." Sometimes he was 
without companions and 
without guides other than 
the sun and stars. At other 
times he had neither food 
nor fire, and no sleeping, 
place but the friendly 
trunk of a hollow tree. He 
finally reached the wigwam 
of his good friend Massasoit, where he rested for a time. 
In June, 1636, with five companions, he founded Prov- 
idence as " a shelter for persons distressed in conscience." 
(See map, page 72.) The Indian chief gave him a tract 
of land, and he in turn almost gave it away to settlers. 
Each month the people of the little community met to 
regulate their affairs, but only in civil matters, for no law 
passed by them touched religious belief or interfered 
with freedom of conscience. 

95. Portsmouth and Newport Settled. Some ban- 
ished friends of Mrs. Hutchinson, on invitation from 
Roger Williams, settled on the island of Rhode Island 




ROGER WILLIAMS ON HIS WAY SOUTH 
TO FOUND RHODE ISLAND 



76 



The Other Neiv England Colonics 



and named their town Portsmouth (1637). (See map 
below.) Mrs. Hutchinson herself soon arrived, and there 
she expressed her opinions without check. On account oi 
disputes among the leaders of the colony, William Cod- 
dington. a liberal-minded gentleman, led off a party 
and planted Newport. . These two towns soon united 
and formed the "Colony of Rhode Island." In 1641 the 
people declared "that the government of this island is a 
Democracie." 

96. Union Under One Charter (1644). Roger Will- 
iams now had great influence with the English govern- 
ment and obtained a charter from Parliament which 
united Providence, Portsmouth, Newport, and Warwick 
into one colony under the name of the Providence Plan- 
tations. This was a very liberal charter, for it permitted 
the people to make their own laws 
and to govern themselves as they 
pleased. Freedom of conscience 
was in no way interfered with, and 
it is to the great honor of Roger 
Williams and Rhode Island that no 
one ever suffered in that colony on 
account of his religious belief. In 
166^ a new charter was obtained 









ProvidenQc t 1 ( ^' 



r^' 






i: 






ATLAS i^^^ 



from Charles II. which confirmed 
the rights and privileges of the 
colonists, and particularly asserted 
that no one should ever be made 
to suffer " for any difference in 
opinion in matters of religion." 
Rhode Island was so well con- 
tented with this new charter, which in all essential 
respects made her a republic, that comparatively few 
changes were made in it till 1842, when it became neces- 
sary to allow more people to vote. 



KARI.Y SET'l l.KMENTS IN 

KHODE ISLAND AND 

1 HE PROVIDENCE 

PLANTATIONS 



Holland Plants a Colony in America 



77 




NEW YORK 

HOLLAND PLANTS A COLONY IN AMERICA 

97„ Henry Hudson ; The Dutch Fur Traders. 

Henry Hudson, an English sailor employed by the Dutch 
East India Company, 
failing in an effort to 
find a northeast route 
to India, turned his 
vessel , the " Half 
Moon," westward to- 
ward the shores of 
America. He entered 
the river which bears 
his name, and sailed 
up to the present site 
of Albany (1609). He 
traded with the In- 
dians, noted the char- 
acter of the soil, the beautiful scenery, the great forests 
everywhere, and the abundance of rich fur-bearing 
animals. Hudson reported his discovery to the company. 

The Dutch merchants were among the most enter- 
prising in their day, and they soon had their boats in New 
Netherland, as the country was called, to take advantage 
of Hudson's discovery. By 161 3 the fur traders had 
built four rude houses on Manhattan Island and about 
the same time they constructed a fort near Albany. (See 
map, page 78.) 

98. A Lasting Indian Treaty (1616). The fur trade 
was the foundation of New Netherland 's prosperity, 
but success in the fur trade demanded friendship with 
the Indians. The Dutch, through Henry Hudson, had 
made a good beginning, but their rivals, the French in 
Canada (§ 150), had made a bad one by attacking the 



HENRY HUDSON IN THE "HALF MOON 
PASSING THE PALISADES 



78 



New York 



Iroquois, or Five Nations, \vho occupied New York. 
Hence these powerful tribes were glad enough to make 
a treaty with the Dutch fur traders. The Indians wanted 
arms and ammunition, and the Dutch wanted furs. 
These they agreed to exchange, and both were happy. 
For over one hundred years the powerful Five Nations 
stood as a barrier between the French and the valleys of 
the Hudson and the Mohawk. (See map below.) 

99. The West India Company ; New Amsterdam. 
News from the fur traders encouraged the formation in 
Holland of the West India Company. Under its authority 
settlers had no political rights, but were ruled by a gov- 
ernor and a council appointed by the company. Immi- 
grants to New Netherland now came to stay and settled 
among the many trading posts. Besides those of ^Man- 
hattan and Fort Orange, later Albany, the enterprising 
traders had built posts on the Delaware near the site of 

Philadelphia, on 
Long Island, and 
later in the valley 
of the Connecti- 
cut. But Manhat- 
tan, which soon 
took the name of 
New Amsterdam, 
grew faster than 
the others. In 
1626 Governor 
Peter Minuit pur- 
chased the whole 
of Manhattan 
Island from the 




NEW NETHERLAND AND THE "FIVE NATIONS" 



Indians. This land, now worth hundreds of millions, 
cost the old Dutch governor less than one cent per 



acre. 



Holland Plants a Colony in America 



79 



100. The Patroons (1629). To increase population 
and to attract rich men to the colony, the company 
offered any of its members sending over fifty settlers 




mmMj 



— ' From a pholograph 

A MANSION OF A PATROON, ON THE FAMOUS VAN RENSSELAER ESTATE 

the title of patroon, or patron, and a large grant of land. 
The settlers were to live on this plantation, pay no taxes 
for ten years, be furnished a farming outfit, and have 
the services of a minister and teacher. On the other 
hand, they were not to vote, hold office, or be tried by a 
jury. The patroon was to be their lawmaker, governor, 
and judge. The settlers were not to hunt, fish, or man- 
ufacture, or remove from the plantation for ten years. 
They had to sell their products to the patroon and grind 
their grain at his mill. 

The most celebrated patroon was Van Rensselaer, who 
selected an immense estate on both sides of the Hudson 
near Fort Orange. Others located near New Amster- 
dam. In summer all lived upon their estates. In winter 
they resided in New Amsterdam, and, by their wealth 
and social position, aided in making it the most aristo* 
cratic of the northern cities. 



8o New York 



THE PEOPLE OF NEW NETHERLAND WANT SELF-GOVERNMENT 

loi. The Dutch Colonists Dissatisfied. The people 
of the Dutch Republic were a liberty-loving people and 
their liking for free government was made stronger by- 
living in America. The absolute rule of the governor 
of New Netherland and the aristocratic patroon system 
could hardly please the settlers as they grew in num- 
Ijers and influence during the next quarter of a century. 
Besides, as the Dutch traders journeyed about they 
learned of the town governments of New England, and 
gained many new ideas from English Puritans settled 
on Long Island. 

The immediate cause of the people's demanding a 
share in the government was a disastrous war with 
the Algonquin Indians (i 641 -1645). which Governor 
Kieft carried on against the wishes of the people. The 
burden of taxation and the destruction of life and prop- 
erty fell upon them, and yet they had no voice or vote 
in the affairs of the colony. 

The people, therefore, demanded a share in the gov- 
ernment, but Kieft opposed them and forbade public 
meetings without his consent. They sent a strong pro- 
test to Holland, begging for the establishment of self- 
government or permission to return to their native land. 
This protest did not bring self-government, but it did 
bring a new governor (1647). 

102. Peter Stuyvesant Opposes the People. The 
colonists were thankful for any change. Peter Stuyve- 
sant, the new governor, was a better and abler man than 
Kieft, although her had not a particle of sympathy with 
popular government. The struggle continued. Stuyve- 
sant wanted money badly, for New Amsterdam and all 
New Netherland needed defenses. The people alone 
bad money. In 1647 the governor was forced to give 



Nc7U Netherland Wants Self'Govcrninciit 



8 1 



them permission to elect a number of their most trusted 
men from whom he might select nine as a committee to 
advise him when he judged it necessary. 

In his dealing with religious sects the governor made 
himself still more unpopular. Toleration was a Dutch 
custom, and persecuted sects — Huguenots, Jews, Scotch 
Presbyterians, Baptists, Quakers, and Puritans — sought 
shelter in New Netherland. The governor favored the 
Dutch Reformed church, and tried to keep other churches 
out of the colony. A few Baptists were fined and impris- 
oned, while Quakers were even whipped and banished. 
But the people favored toleration, and finally compelled 
the governor to treat all religious sects more kindly. 

103. The Struggle for Self-Government Continues. 
When the quarrel between 
the governor and the peo- 
ple broke out afresh, the 
government of Holland 
gave New Amsterdam its 
own city government 
(1653). But the appoint- 
ment of officers was left to 
the governor, and so the 
people obtained little real 
power. The population 
of New Amsterdam was only about eight hundred. 
Growth had been very slow, because the town and colony 
had been ruled for the benefit of a trading company 
instead of for the people. 

In the same year the citizens objected to paying for a 
great wall — whence the name Wall Street — built along 
the north side of the town, for military protection, and 
Stuyvesant was forced to permit a popular convention 
of eight towns to discuss public affairs. The convention 
charged the governor with being tyrannical, and he in 

1 




THE PALISADE ON MANHATTAN ISLAND 

SHOWING THE ORIGIN OF 

WALL STREET 



82 



New York 



turn dismissed it, asserting that his authority came from 
God and the company, and not from the people. 

104. The Natural Results of Tyranny. War between 
England and Holland broke out in 1.664. New Amster- 
dam was in danger, but the people had little interest in 
affairs in which they had no voice. The defenses of the 
town were weak. Stuyvesant had only one hundred and 
fifty regular soldiers, twenty cannon, and a little powder. 

The English fleet, carrying one hundred and twenty 




THE DUTCH MOTHERS BEGGING STUYVESANT TO SURRENDER 

cannon, sailed into the bay. The English officers came 
on shore and offered the governor favorable terms of 
surrender, but Stuyvesant angrily tore up the paper 
containing the offer in order to keep the people from 
hearing it. The news, however, got out among the 
gathered multitude, and the governor's conduct was 
roundly hissed. Still Stuyvesant wanted to fight, but 
the next day his good friend, the minister, put his hand 
on his shoulder and told him it was wrong to shed blood 
in a hopeless cause. The people signed a protest 
against fighting, and the good Dutch mothers, with 



Progress Toivard Sclf-Government 83 

tears in their eyes, begged Stuyvesant to surrender. 
" Let it be so. I had rather be carried to my grave," 
said the brave old governor. 

The result was a most happy one for the English. 
Before the surrender the line of English colonies was 
broken in the middle by New Netherland. No enemy 
was now nearer than the French in Canada and the 
Spanish in Florida. 

PROGRESS TOWARD SELF-GOVERNMENT 

105. The Colony in 1664; Duke's Laws (1665). Ever 
since Cabot's voyage (§ 13) England had claimed the Hud- 
son River region. Charles IL had already granted it to 
his brother James, Duke of York and Albany. In honor 
of the new owner, New Netherland was now renamed 
New York, and Fort Orange became Albany. The pop- 
ulation of the colony was about ten thousand. The 
rich owned slaves, and there was already a greater 
mixture of races and nations than in any other colony 
in America. As early as 1643, eighteen different lan- 
guages could have been heard in New Amsterdam, It 
thus began very early to be a " city of foreigners." 

Next to self-government, the colony was in need of 
a good system of schools. From an early date schools 
of some sort had existed, and a "common school" had 
been opened in New Amsterdam in 1650. Later a Latin 
school had been founded whose fame drew students 
even from the Carolinas. Just before the surrender a 
grant for school purposes had been made to Brooklyn, 
by the governor and his council. Unfortunately the 
English neglected for many years the promising begin- 
nings in education already made by the Dutch. 

But the people felt keenly their lack of a share in 
public affairs, and the hope of obtaining this made many 
welcome the English. The " Duke's Laws," drawn up by 
Governor Nichols and a convention of representatives 



84 Nciv York 

of the people, were in the right direction. They pro- 
vided for : (/) Election of town officers by landholders. 
{2) Trial by jury, (j) Freedom of worship. 

There was still, however, no representative assembly. 
The colonists again became dissatisfied, and the Dutch 
inhabitants rejoiced when a Dutch fleet recaptured New 
Netherland (1674). But their joy was cut short, for a 
treaty soon restored the province to England. 

106. The First Assembly; The Charter of Liberties. 
With the return of the English the demand for repre- 
sentative government was renewed. Andros, the new 
governor, later the " Tyrant of New England " (§ 82), 
opposed the demand, but he wrote to the Duke of York 
for advice. The duke had already learned to fear repre- 
sentative assemblies, and said that he did not " see any 
use of them." But the people did not lose heart, and 
sent a strong petition for an assembly. It is said that 
William Penn advised the duke to grant the favor, and a 
new governor, Thomas Dongan, brought the good news 
of the duke's consent. 

The first assembly consisted of eighteen representa- 
tives elected by the landholders of the colony. Good 
laws were made, and a Charter of Liberties was drawn 
up and sent to England for the duke's approval. But 
when the Duke of York became James IL, King of 
England, he not only refused to approve the Charter 
of Liberties, but destroyed the assembly so happily 
begun, annexed New York to New England, and then 
appointed Andros as governor over the whole. (See 
map, page 69.) 

107. Rule of Leisler (1689). When the news came 
that the people of England had risen in rebellion and 
had driven James from the throne, a bold German shop- 
keeper, named Leisler, who had been a soldier, took com- 
mand of the militia and seized the government of New 



Delazvarc 85 

York in the name of William and Mary, the new rulers 
of England. 

Leisler was opposed by many, especially by the 
wealthier people, but was stoutly supported by most of 
the other classes. He kept his position for a time by force, 
and, though he intended well, his rule was harsh. Gov- 
ernor Sloughter, who was sent from England, had Leisler 
tried for treason, and, while intoxicated, signed his death 
warrant. The bitter feeling aroused over Leisler's con- 
duct and death divided New York for many years. 

108. Representative Government Firmly Estab- 
lished. Just as in England the Revolution of 1688 over- 
threw the tyrannical rule of James II., so in New Eng- 
land, New York, and New Jersey it restored the liberties 
of the people. William and Mary granted New York's 
wish for a permanent representative assembly. After a 
struggle lasting half a century the right of the people to 
a share in their own government was thus secured. 

The English kings did not always send wise gov- 
ernors to rule New York, and her assembly often quar- 
reled bitterly with them. By resisting the arbitrary con- 
duct of the governors the people of the colony kept alive 
that spirit of independence which later led them to bear 
their part in the American Revolution. 

THE OTHER MIDDLE COLONIES 

DELAWARE 

109. New Sweden. In 1638 the eyes of all Europe 
were on Sweden. Her great king, Gustavus Adolphus, 
had won many victories, and her statesmen became 
ambitious to extend the dominion of their country to 
the New World. Accordingly, the Swedes planted a 
colony on the banks of the Delaware River, where Wil- 
mington now stands, and named it Christina, in honor 
of their new queen. (See map, page 87.) New Netherland 



86 TJie Other Middle Colonies 

at once declared that her territory had been invaded. 
The Swedes, however, made other settlements and their 
colony prospered, but the quarrel with the Dutch con- 
tinued until sturdy Peter Stuyvesant's army forced the 
Swedes to surrender (1655). 

no. A Part of Pennsylvania (1682), Delaware did 
not remain long under the Dutch, but passed into the 
hands of the Duke of York, along with New Nether- 
land (1664). Maryland tried to get possession of the 
little colony, but William Penn, the personal friend of 
the Duke of York, won the prize and 'added it to Penn- 
sylvania to give his great colony a more direct outlet 
to the sea. 

But the people of Delaware were not happy in this 
union, and obtained an assembly and a deputy governor 
of their own. From 1693 to 1703 Delaware was again 
united with Pennsylvania, but in the latter year was once 
more made a distinct colony, although she continued to 
have the same governor as Pennsylvania. 

NEW JERSEY 

III. First Settlements. The Dutch fur traders from 
New Netherland were the first to occupy New Jersey 
by establishing a post at Bergen, but the entire region 
between the Delaware and the Hudson fell to the Duke 
of York by the conquest (1664). (See map, page 87.) He 
granted it to two friends, Lord John Berkeley and Sir 
George Carteret. The name New Jersey was given to it 
because Carteret had won fame as governor of the Island 
of Jersey. The government established by the proprie- 
tors was liberal, consisting of a governor, a council, and 
an elective assembly. Toleration was granted to all 
sects who behaved themselves. 

In 1665 Elizabethtown was founded by English emi- 
grants led by their first governor, Philip Carteret. A 
little later, people from New Haven, dissatisfied on 



Neiv Jersey 



87 



account of their union with Connecticut, came and 
settled Newark. (See §92.) They immediately organ- 
ized a town government, and resolved that only church 
members could vote and hold office. Several other settle- 
ments were also made by New England people. Two 
years later deputies were sent to Elizabethtown to frame 
a set of laws for the government of the colony. A 
liberal government, tolera- 
tion, safety from Indian 
attacks, and a moderate cli- 
mate, all had an influence 
in attracting large numbers 
of settlers. 

112. East and West 
Jersey. The settlers, follow- 
ing the custom of other col- 
onists, purchased their lands 
from the Indians. This 
purchase was not only just, 
but gave the colonists an 
excuse for refusing the pro- 
prietors' demand for a small 
land rent. Their main ob- 
jection to paying rent, how- 
ever, was their claim that 
they had occupied the land 
before the proprietors. 

The trouble which fol- 
lowed led Berkeley to sell 
his share of New Jersey to Quakers who sought a refuge 
from English persecution. This part of New Jersey 
finally fell into the hands of William Penn and other 
Friends. A line was drawn separating the colony into 
East and West Jersey, the latter falling to the Quakers. 

William Penn tried to give West Jersey genuine 




EAST AND WEST JERSEY AND THE 
SURROUNDING COLONIES 



88 The Other Middle Colonies 

self-government. Ten " honest and able men," chosen by 
the assembly, were to act instead of a governor. Reli- 
gious toleration was granted, and no power was retained 
by the owners. " We put the power in the people," said 
the Quaker proprietors. Four hundred Quakers imme- 
diately left England for West Jersey, where they founded 
Burlington (1677). 

In 1682 William Penn and twenty-three others, chiefly 
Friends and Scotch Presbyterians, encouraged by the 
success in West Jersey, purchased East Jersey from Car- 
teret's heirs. While the new owners continued Carteret's 
government, they succeeded in settling, for a time, the 
rent disputes. A large number of Scotch Presbyterians 
settled in East Jersey in order to enjoy toleration. 

113. Quarrel with the Duke of York; New Jersey 
Becomes a Royal Province. Meanwhile the colony was 
threatened from without. The Duke of York soon came 
to regret that he had given away so valuable a posses- 
sion, and wished to bring New Jersey once more under 
his authority. But when Governor Andros of New York 
tried to carry out his master's wishes, he was met by 
resolute opposition. 

William Penn argued the case of New Jersey in Eng- 
land with great skill and the duke was forced to give up 
his claims. Later, when he became king, he united the 
Jerseys to New England and New York under the rule 
of Andros (§ 82). But when Andros was overthrown New 
Jersey welcomed back her old proprietors. 

The trouble over rents arose again, however. This 
time the settlers resisted their collection by force of arms, 
and the proprietors, tired of quarreling, gave up to the 
crown (1 702) their right to govern the colony. Until 1 738 
New Jersey had the same governor as New York. As 
in other colonies of this kind, the king appointed the 
governor and the council, but the assembly was elected 



Pennsylvania a Home for the Persecuted 



89 



w 






by the people. Although all Christians were tolerated, 
only Protestants holding property could vote. 

Now independent of New York and having her own 
government, New Jersey faced toward the future, to 
work out her own destiny and to bear her share in the 
movements of the new century. 

PENNSYLVANIA BECOMES A HOME FOR THE PERSECUTED 

114. The Origin of the Quakers. We have already 
met the Quakers in several of the colonies, but now we 
shall study them in their own great colony of Pennsyl- 
vania. George Fox, the first Quaker, 
grew to manhood in England during 
the stirring times of the war between 
Charles I. and the Puritans. It was a 
period which gave birth to new ideas 
and new sects. 

The first followers of the Quaker 
faith came from among the lowly. 
Of this the leaders were not ashamed. 
The new converts were enthusiastic 
and were soon preaching in many 
parts of Europe and in America 

(§ 79)- 

115. Their Doctrines. The doc- 
trines and practices of the Friends, 
as they called themselves, were simple. They rejected 
all forms and outward show in worship even more com- 
pletely than the Puritans (§ 60). The corner stone of 
their faith was that truth is made known to every man 
by a ''divine inner light," or an "inward voice," which, 
to them, was the voice of God. 

Many important consequences grew out of this belief. 
(/) They held that every man is his own priest, that paid 
ministers are unnecessary, and that taxes for the church 
are wrong. {2) They believed that all men are equal in 




A TYPICAL QUAKER 



90 



The Other Mieidle Colonies 



the sight of God and should be so in the sight of men. 
Hence, no titles of rank or honor should be given, and 
the hat should not be removed before any one. All 
men, kings and common people, should be addressed by 
the simple word "friend," or by the words "thee" and 
"thou." (j) It was only one step more to the conclu- 
sion that all men should have equal political rights. 
The Quakers were more democratic than the Puritans. 
{4) They denied the authority of all churches, and refused 
to take an oath, even as a witness in court. In fact 
they were not always favorable to lawyers and courts, 
but believed it better to agree than to go to law or 

war. (5) They abso- 
lutely refused to 
make war, even in 
self-defense. 

116. William 
Penn. The greatest 
among the Quakers 
was William Penn, 
son of Admiral Penn, 
the friend of King 
Charles II. While 
a student at Oxford, 
young Penn became 
a Quaker, was fined, 
had to leave college, 
and was driven from 
home. His father 
finally forgave him ; 
but in Ireland, and 

by his grandson, GrahviUe F'enn of Stoke I^oges qcrnin and liTain in 

England, he was thrown into prison, owing to his belief. 
Nothing, however, could break his resolution to follow 
the teachings of his conscience. 




WILLIAM PENN 



At the age of 22, from a painting in the rooms of 
the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, presented 



Pennsylvania a Home for the Persecuted 



9^ 




117. Penn's Grant; The Charter. Persecution in 
England soon led the Quakers to turn their thoughts to 
America. We have already seen how Penn and other 
Friends suc- 
ceeded in 
founding a 
prosperous 
Quaker col- 
ony in West 
Jersey (§ 112). 
The success of 
this undertak- 
ing led him to 
form a new 
plan. He de- 
termined to 
plant a colony 

of his own. the early settlements in PENNSYLVANIA, SHOWING 
-^ , THEIR RELATIONS TO THE NEIGHBORING COLONIES 

rortune fav- 
ored the young Quaker. The English government owed 
his father a large sum of money, and in payment of the 
debt Charles II. granted Penn the title to about forty 
thousand square miles in America, under the name of 
Pennsylvania. (See map above.) 

William Penn drew up his own charter and made it 
true to the ideas of the Friends. (/) Absolute freedom 
of conscience was granted, without regard to sect, color, 
or nation. {2) Government was declared to be for the 
benefit of the people, and was to be conducted by them. 
(j) Criminals were to be reformed and not merely pun- 
ished. {4) Only two crimes, murder and treason, were 
to be punished with death. (5) Trial by jury was given 
to Indians as well as to Englishmen. (6) By the charter, 
Penn was made proprietor and, of course, personal owner 
of all the land of the colony. 



92 Tlie Other Middle Colonies 

Ii8. The Migration to Pennsylvania. Early in the 
spring of 1 68 1 the work of founding the new colony began. 
Penn sent a letter to the people of Delaware, who had 
been placed under his authority, 'wishing them "happi- 
ness here and hereafter," and saying that he was no 
governor coming "to make his fortunes great." "You 
shall be governed by laws of your own making and live 
a free, sober, and industrious people. I shall not usurp 
the right of any, or oppress his person." 

Penn's plans were published on the continent of 
Europe. The good news spread rapidly, and new hope 
sprang up in the hearts of the poor and the oppressed. 
No movement since the days of Winthrop and the Puri- 
tans could compare with the emigration of Penn and 
the Quakers. Over twenty ships carrying three thousand 
settlers sailed for the Delaware the first year, and within 
four or five years seven thousand persons were in the 
new colony. From England, Germany, France, Sweden, 
and other lands they came, attracted by advantages 
offered by no other country. 

119. Penn's Arrival; Assembly at Chester. In 1682 
Penn, with one hundred Quakers, arrived at Newcastle 
in the ship " Welcome." The settlers gathered to give 
him a hearty greeting and to acknowledge his authority. 
The men wore leather breeches and jerkins, while the 
women were clad in skin jackets and linsey petticoats. 
One settler handed Penn water and soil, signifying that 
the great Quaker owned the land and the water ; another 
gave turf and twig, showing that Penn had authority 
over all things that grew upon the land. Finally Penn 
received the keys of the fort, which meant that he could 
hold his possessions by force of arms. This was a very 
ancient ceremony much used in Europe, but even then 
seldom employed in America, for it reminded people too 
mucii of aristocracy. 



PciDisylvania a Home for the Perseeutcd 



93 



In a few weeks Penn met the representatives of the 
people at Chester to establish the Great Law of Pennsyl- 
vania for their better government. These toilers in the 
western wilderness decreed that man should rest from 
labor on the first day of the week, but that no one should 
be persecuted for religion's sake, and that no taxes should 
be raised for the support of a church. Every person pay- 
ing taxes was to vote, and all Christians could hold office. 
No oath was required in giving testimony in court, but 
" the false accuser was liable to double damages." Prisons 
were not to be jails merely, but were to be provided with 
workshops where useful trades could be learned. 

120. Penn Treats with the Indians (1682) ; Founding 
of Philadelphia (1683). William Penn treated all men 







After the painting by Benjamin West, owiieJ by the l'( 
PENN TREATING WITH THE INDIANS 



Jemj of Fine Arts 



as brothers, the red man as well as the white man. He 
met the Indians on terms of equality and friendship, ate 
with them, joined in their pastimes, gave them presents, 
and completely won the hearts of these children of the 
American forest. ' As long as the Friends controlled the 



94 'J ^tc Other Middle Colonics 

colony the agreements between Penn and the Indians 
remained unbroken. 

Penn soon turned his attention to founding his capi- 
tal, Philadelphia, the "city of brotherly love." He marked 
broad and regular streets and- named them after the 
trees that grew on all sides. Settlers came more rapidly 
than houses could be built, and not a few lived in caves 
dug along the banks of the Delaware. Before the year 
closed, there were more than three hundred and fifty 
houses, and within the next two years over two thousand 
people had made it their home, and the school and the 
printing press were at work. This rapid growth con- 
tinued imtil Philadelphia became one of the most impor- 
tant cities of colonial times. It was the scene, in the next 




PENN'S TREATY BELT OF WAMPUM 

century, of some of the most interesting events in Amer- 
ican history. The colony had become, as Penn himself 
declared, the greatest that had been planted in America 
by private effort. 

121. Penn's Return ; Mason and Dixon's Line. 
Penn was compelled to return to England (1684) because 
of a dispute with the Baltimores about the boundary 
between Pennsylvania and Maryland. 

The dispute was not settled till long after, when two 
English surveyors, Mason and Dixon, ran a line between 
the two colonies from east to west three hundred miles. 
Every few miles they placed a stone, on one side of 
which was cut the coat of arms of the Baltimores, and 
on the other that of the Penn family. This became 



The People 95 

known as "Mason and Dixon's line," and later marked 
the separation of the slave and the free states. 

122. Dissatisfaction in Pennsylvania. The governors 
appointed by Penn were not always as wise and unselfish 
as he, and many of the settlers forgot what Penn had 
done for them in founding the great colony. Even if 
these two causes had not existed, it would have been 
impossible for people so different in nationality, ideas, 
and habits as the settlers of Pennsylvania, to have agreed 
with the Quakers on all questions. 

We have seen how " the lower counties," which made 
up Delaware, objected to being a part of Pennsylvania 
(§ no). But the greatest difficulties arose over the pay- 
ment of quit-rent, a small sum annually due William 
Penn as proprietor. The people did not like to go on 
paying rent forever to him and his heirs, yet this is just 
what "quit-rent" meant. Penn came back in 1699 and 
things went better for a time. But the quarrel broke out 
again with his descendants, and ended only when the 
Revolution turned the attention of the people to greater 
questions. 

Penn's colony prospered; agriculture and commerce 
grew, and schools and newspapers multiplied. Emigra- 
tion from Ireland and Germany increased, so that Penn- 
sylvania, although settled much later than most of the 
colonies, soon became larger than New York, and was 
exceeded in population only by Virginia and Massachu- 
setts. 

COLONIAL LIFE 

THE PEOPLE 

123. Distribution and Grovrth. The surrender of 
New Netherland gave to the English an unbroken line 
of colonies from Maine to Florida. By 1750 settlers 
had already pushed up the larger streams, such as the 



96 



Colonial Ijfc 



Connecticut, the Hudson, the Delaware, the Susquehanna, 
the Potomac, the James, and the Roanoke. The hardy 
pioneers of Virginia and Carolina were preparing to 

cross the mountains into what 
is now Tennessee and Ken- 
tucky, Beyond the line of 
settlements was a region 
where the English woodsman 
contended for the Indian 
trade with his hated rival, the 
French fur trader. 

In 1750 Boston, New York, 
Albany, Philadelphia, Balti- 
more, Williamsburg, and 
Charleston were the most 
important places in the col- 
onies, either on account of 
their size and trade or because 
they were capital towns. 
None of them were very 
large, for the great majority of the colonists lived on 
farms or in small villages. 

Although population was increasing very fast, the 
thirteen colonies in 1750 contained less than one million 
five hundred thousand inhabitants. New York City with 
its immediate vicinity alone now has more than twice as 
many inhabitants. Moreover, this number included the 
negro slaves. In Virginia the blacks nearly equaled the 
whites, while in South Carolina they were more numer- 
ous. The middle colonies had fewer slaves than the 
southern, and New England had fewest of all. 

124. English and Non-English Colonists. In 1750 
the majority of the people of the thirteen colonies were 
English. In New England nearly everybody was of 
English descent. The southern colonies, especially 




A FRENCH FUR TRADER WITH 
HIS PACK 



The People 



97 



Maryland and Virginia, came next in the number of 
English settlers, though both of the Carolinas contained 
many non-English people. The middle colonies, how- 
ever, had a greater mixture of nationalities than the 
others. 

In 1700 the Dutch were still in a majority in New 
York. Soon after, thousands of Germans arrived and 
settled along the Hudson and the Mohawk, where they 
became prosperous farmers, and where to-day are many 
towns with German names. 

But the majority of these Germans settled in Pennsyl- 
vania and made up a very large part of the population. 
The Pennsylvania Germans, nicknamed " Pennsylvania 
Dutch," for a long time kept the language and customs 
of their native land. Some of their quaint ways may 
still be seen in the nooks 
and corners of that state. 
From them, as well as from 
the other non-English set- 
tlers, have come some of the 
famous men of the country. 

Among the boldest and 
most energetic pioneers of 
the colonial period were the 
Scotch-Irish, whose fore- 
fathers originally lived in 
Scotland, but who afterward 
moved to the northern part 
of Ireland. They settled 
largely in the mountain val- r- 
leys of Pennsylvania, Vir- 
ginia, and the Carolinas, 
where they had few or no 
slaves, and lived very plainly in their log houses on little 
farms. They were the " backwoodsmen " of later colonial 




>^ 



THE HARDY BACKWOODSMAN 



98 



Coloiial Life 



days. These Scotch-Irish settlers were the greatest 
Indian fighters and the best marksmen in America. The 
sore oppression which drove them from Ireland made 
them among the first to resist the king's tyranny in 
America. 

125. Social Classes. The American colonists did 
not quickly get rid of all their old-world customs. 
People everywhere were more separated into social 
classes than now. Although few per- 
sons who emigrated to America had 
titles and belonged to aristocratic 
society, yet in all the colonies there 
were great social differences. 

The negroes were the lowest class. 
They and their children were bought 
and sold as slaves, unless some kind- 
hearted master set them free. Even 
when treated kindly their life was a 
hard one. 

Next to the negro slaves were the 

white " indented " or bond servant and 

the poor white laborer. They were 

*f.]L*BSB?*s»^~ _'J^,|< widely separated from the negro by 




.^'^^''' 



pl§§^ their color and by the fact that they 
^•-"': "^ were free or would soon become so, but 
A COLONIAL GENTLEMAN ^^^^ ^^^^^ generally ignorant and sel- 
dom got ahead in life unless they moved into the newer 
regions where people thought less about social standing. 
In the second class of whites were the mechanics, shop- 
keepers, and small farmers. These were a sturdy and 
promising class, and made up the majority of the 
colonists. They struggled to improve their condition by 
saving their earnings and by educating their children. 
The third, or highest social class, was made up not 
only of educated people, as ministers, lawyers, governors, 



The People 99 

and judges, but, especially in the middle and the soathern 
colonies, of the rich, such as the patroons and the great 
planters. 

126. How Social Differences Were Shown. The 
differences between classes were shown in many ways. 
The lower classes were expected to be very polite and 
respectful to the upper. Marriage between persons of 
different social rank was strongly opposed. At church 
the people were often seated according to social standing, 
and the common people sometimes remained outside the 
church till the great officers or the rich planters and their 
families had entered. Students at Harvard College were 
seated according to their social standing. 

Social rank was partly shown in dress. ; The slaves 
wore little, and that little of the cheapest kind. The 
poorer class of whites dressed plainly because they could 
afford no better. In place of shoes they often, like the 
Indians, wore moccasins made of the furs and skins 
of wild animals. When cloth was scarce the men wore 
leather breeches sometimes trimmed with fur. The mid- 
dle class dressed more comfortably, while the men and 
women of the highest class tried in every way to show 
their standing by their clothing. 

For weddings, receptions, and balls the men powdered 
their hair, wore wigs, rich velvet coats, knee breeches, 
silk stockings, and silver shoe-buckles, and carried gold- 
headed canes and gold snuffboxes. Fashionable young 
men sometimes wore swords, laced hats, and red cloth 
coats. The women on such occasions were dressed in 
silks, satins, and velvets brought from London. The 
royal governors and other officers appointed by the king 
made great efforts to impress the people with their rank, 
not only by receptions and baHs, but by ceremonies in 
opening and closing the legislatures and by "processions" 
through the colony. 



lOO 



Colonial Life 



127. The Governor's Reception at Williamsburg. 
The greatest social event in any colony was the gover- 
nor's reception and ball. To be invited was to receive 
the highest honor. 

In no colony was the old-world pomp and pride kept 
up better than in the " Old Dominion." The great recep- 
tion occurred at Williamsburg, the capital town, to cele- 




THE GOVERNOR'S RECEPTION IN THE COLONIAL DAYS, ONE OF THE GREAT 
EVENTS OF THE YEAR 

brate the meeting of the House of Burgesses. The 
families of the planters looked forward to this reception 
for months,' and the mothers and daughters made great 
preparations. It was the most interesting subject for 
talk for many days before the event. Among the heir- 
looms of some of the old families of Virginia are letters 
written at the time that some of these festivities took 
place, and describing what occurred. 

In his great coach, decorated with the family coat 
of arms and drawn by fine horses, the planter and his 
family journeyed toward the capital. Before them rode 
negro servants and behind them came others, all proud 



The People lOI 

to belong to such a man as their master. What busy and 
noisy scenes the old capital town presented, as the great 
planters with their families and trains of servants came 
pouring in ! How grand and stately was the reception ! 
The governor and his family received the officers of the 
colony, the burgesses, and other distinguished people. 
Everybody was dressed in his best, and all bowed low to 
the governor and his wife and then backed stiffly away, 
because no one might turn his back upon the king's 
representative. How happy and proud were the planter 
and his family if the governor smiled and spoke with 
more than usual friendliness ! 

128. Rent Day on the Hudson. On the great estates 
owned by the patroons, events took place which were 
seen nowhere else in the colonies. The patroon's house, 
usually made of brick or stone, Avas of great size, often 
three stories high. The rooms were many and large, and 
frequently finely decorated. The furniture and the dia- 
mond-shaped windows spoke of great wealth. Around the 
mansion ran wide, well-cared-for walks lined with beau- 
tiful shrubbery. Farther away lay the gardens and the 
orchards, sometimes extending down to the Hudson. 
Near by stood the great barns where the grain was 
stored and w^here horses and cattle found comfortable 
quarters. Nearer still were the plainer houses for the 
white and the black servants belonging to the patroon. 
How like the estate of some European lord all this 
appears ! 

Once or twice a year rent day came around. Then all 
the small farmers living on the patroon's vast estate 
gathered with rent money in their pockets, and in their 
wagons they brought the patroon's share of what they 
had raised. It was a holiday and every farmer and his 
family were dressed in their best clothes, A great feast 
was prepared. An ox, sheep, and pigs had been roasted. 



I02 



Colonial Life 



Dozens of vServants, white and black, hastened to and fro, 
waiting upon the people, who ate, drank, and made 
merry. Everybody declared that the patroon was a 
kind-hearted man. But when the farmers went to their 
homes to begin again their hard labor, they could not 
help washing that the farms were their own and that 
they did not have to pay rent. 

HOME LIFE AND PASTIMES 

129. Colonial Houses. The first settlers lived in log 
cabins, and down to the end of the colonial period the 
majority of houses were made of roughly dressed logs. 
After the introduction of saw mills the well-to-do people 
began to have houses built of lumber. Later, a few of 




From » pbotofrmph 



A MANSION OF THE MIDDLE COLONIES — THE BEVERLY CHEW HOME 

the rich had stone or brick houses. From 1700 on, colo- 
nial homes grew larger and more elegant, especially in 
the towns and cities. 

After the families of the first settlers were made 
comfortable the men hastened to build a church and 
a blockhouse. The latter was made of great logs and 



Home Life and Pastimes 



T03 




From % pbotogrmph 
A BLOCKHOUSE BUILT FOR PROTECTION 
AGAINST THE INDIANS 



had portholes and an overhanging second story. Some- 
times a watchtower was added. Whenever an Indian 
alarm was given, the 
people for miles around 
ran to the blockhouse 
for safety. For over 
two hundred years the 
log cabin and the block- 
house followed the 
march of settlement 
westward. 

The long winters of 
the northern colonies 
compelled the people 
to build houses in 
which to keep warm, 
while the long sum- 
mers of the southern colonies compelled them to build 
houses in which to keep cool (§ 54). The northern 
dwellings were closely built and did not have many 
doors or windows, while the southern houses were often 
divided by long, wide halls, and had verandas and bal- 
conies. Window glass came into use slowly, many houses 
having nothing better than oiled paper to let in the light 
and keep out the storm. 

One important part of every colonial home, whether 
rich or poor, was the great fireplace, the only means of 
heating. In the smaller homes the fireplace occupied a 
large part of one side of the house. If the family had a 
separate room for a kitchen, it, too, had a fireplace where 
the cooking was done, for there were no cooking stoves 
in colonial times. The kitchen had very few of the 
many conveniences now used by the poorest housewife. 

130. Furniture and Light. Aside from the furniture 
brought from Europe, the colonists had to depend on 



I04 



Colonial Life 




A 

WHALE 

OIL 

LAMP 




that which they made themselves. In hundreds of 

homes in every colony stools served as chairs, and 
benches as setters, while rude tables were 
made with ax and saw. Outside of the 
towns, tables were furnished with wooden 
dishes, and the well-to-do more often ate 
from pewter plates than from china. 
Instead of the smooth solid floors which 
the poorest have to-day, the settlers then 
often used the hard earth for a floor. 
Instead of carpets, even those better off 
had only the bare floor, with here and 
there a home-made mat. 

To light the finest houses there was 
neither electricity nor gas, nor even ker- 
osene lamps, but only tallow candles. 

When these were wanting, the "tallow dips," whale-oil 

lamps, or the light of the great fireplace drove away the 

darkness. When the 

fire accidentally went 

out, some one had to 

bring live coals from a -^ ' 

neighbor's or " strike "^^^^ 

fire" from a flint, for.^^^ 

matches were yet un- 
known. 

131. Clothing. The 

settler's rifle and dog 

secured not only food 

for the table, but 

clothing for the body. 

The skin of the deer 

was dressed and 

made into breeches 

for the men and into carrying fire from the neighbor's 




Home Life and Pastimes 



105 



moccasins to be worn instead of shoes. Fur-bearing 
animals like the beaver and the raccoon furnished hats 
and material for other 
clothes. The farmers raised 
flax and wool which the 
women of the household 
made into cloth. The 
wealthy people in all 
the colonies imported fine 
clothes from London, but 
among the industrious mid- 
dle class every family spun 
its own yarn or thread, wove 
its own cloth, and cut and 
made its own clothes. 

132. Pastimes. In New 
England and the middle col- 
onies indoor pleasures and 
pastimes occurred before 
the great fireplace. Here 
neighbors gathered to pass 
the long winter evenings in 
social chat, story-telling, nut- --' 
cracking, or to take part in J 
some kind of "bee." In 
the daytime, spinning, sewing, and quilting bees gave 
pleasant and profitable occupation to mothers and 
daughters. In the southern colonies dancing was a 
popular amusement. 

But outdoor games and sports also added to the 
enjoyment of colonial times. New England and New 
York were happy with their husking bees, sleighing 
and skating parties, while farther to the southward fox- 
hunting was a favorite pastime. South Carolina added 
football to the long list of southern outdoor sports. 




SPINNING IN A COLONIAL HOME 



io6 



Colonial Life 



133. Training Day and Rifle Practice. The rifle 
helped not only to furnish food and clothing, but to 
protect the settler from the Indians. It was, therefore, 
every man's companion, whether he was at work in the 
fields or on a visit to a neighbor, or in the village. 
Sometimes the people went armed even to church. 

The result was that the colonists became natural 
soldiers. But to improve them still more, "training 
days" were held in all the colonies, when the men 




A TYPICAL NEW ENGLAND HOME 



gathered to be taught by some veteran how to form in 
ranks, march, load, and fire at the word of command. 

Such a meeting was a sort of holiday, when whole 
families went to see the militia drill like real soldiers 
and to visit with old friends. After the drill was over, 
the men took part in running, jumping, boxing, wrest- 
ling, and other athletic games. 

But they did not forget the rifle. The pioneer was 
proud of his marksmanship. Shooting-matches were a 
common pastime, and such contests frequently followed 
the drill. Judges were chosen, the distance measured. 



Schools, Books, and Newspapers 



107 



and the target set up. The one who hit the mark 
oftenest was declared the champion rifleman. This was 
a proud honor in those days when the American col- 
onists were among the best marksmen in the world, 

SCHOOLS, BOOKS, AND NEWSPAPERS 

134. Northern Schools. The first thing the Ameri- 
can colonists had to do was to cut away the forests, build 
houses, and make farms. Everybody had to help, men, 
women, and children. The settlers had few books. 
Even after the printing press was set up, not many 
books or papers were made in the colonies, for the 
people were too poor to buy and too busy to read them. 

In New England the 
schoolhouse came next 
after the church and the 
blockhouse (§ 1 29), but if . - 
a town was not large - -'^ 
enough for a public /^^ 
school, the minister often 
taught the children. Al- 
though, under the Dutch, 
a school of some sort 
existed in almost every 
town, when the English conquered New Netherland they 
neglected the schools for a long time. In New Jersey, 
soon after 1700, every county had a school supported by 
taxation. 

When Philadelphia was founded public schools sprang 
up, the most famous of which was the Penn Charter 
School. It was open to both boys and girls — a very 
unusual thing in any colony — to the rich for a fee, but 
to the poor without pay. Outside of Philadelphia, 
schools grew more slowly, but the faithful pastors 
among the Germans and the Irish often taught the 
children of their own congregations. 







A NEW ENGLAND SCHOOLHOUSE 



io8 



Colonial Life 



135, Education in the South. South of Pennsylvania 
the public schools were fewer in number, because 
the people lived far apart. Governor Berkeley of Vir- 
ginia was opposed to public schools, and thanked God 
that there were no free schools or newspapers in Virginia. 
Nevertheless Virginia boys had a number of schools, 
supported by gifts, where they could study. In South 
Carolina, also, " free schools " were maintained by private 
gifts. In the southern colonies the sons of the wealthier 
planters often studied at home under private tutors, while 
others depended on the clergy, who taught the children 
of their neighborhood when other schools were lacking. 

136. Colonial Colleges. New England not only had 
a school for every town, but a college for every colon}-. 













">s^.:^ ■_:>$ '1S''^>' 'ii 




HARVARD COLLEGE IN THE EARLY DAVS 

Massachusetts had Harvard (1636), Connecticut had Yale 
(1701), Rhode Island, Brown (1764), and New Hampshire, 
Dartmouth (1769). The middle colonies also averaged 
one each. New York had Kings, now Columbia (1754); 
New Jersey had two, Princeton (1746) and Rutgers (1770); 



Schools, Books, and Newspapers 109 

while Pennsylvania had the largest college in America, 
the University of Pennsylvania (1755), which soon had 
four hundred students. 

But the boys in the southern colonies generally went 
either to the College of William and Mary or to the 
north, while a few of the wealthiest studied in England. 
No southern college was established outside of Virginia 
until after the War for Independence. 

The colonies had about as many colleges, according 
to population, as we now have, but not nearly so many 
public schools. 

137. Libraries. The school is for children, but books 
and newspapers are the teachers of older people. The 
one book found in colonial homes was the Bible. Books 
were then scarce everywhere in the world, but particu- 
larly in America. Hundreds of towns, cities, and schools 
have libraries now, but in colonial times there were few 
libraries, even in the larger towns. Charleston had the 
only important town library in the southern group. 
Most of the libraries belonged to private persons or to 
the colleges. One great Virginia planter owned a library 
of over three thousand volumes ; one or two others had 
collections of two or three hundred books. 

138. Newspapers. The first printing in America 
was done at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1639. Pam- 
phlets and almanacs were printed before the first book, 
which was the Bay Psalm Book, appeared from the press. 

The first real American newspaper, the Boston News 
Letter, did not appear until 1704. Other papers soon 
sprang up in New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and 
Charleston, All the colonies had one or more printing 
presses before the war broke out with England. 

But how slow it all appears to us! No telegraph, 
telephone, or reporters to collect the news. The printer 
gathered his news, set his own type, and then worked 



no Colonial Life 

the press himself, printing only one page at a time. 
After the paper was printed, there were no newsboys or 
fast trains to carry it to its readers. How old the news 
must have been ! When the first daily paper, the Penn- 
sylvania Packet, appeared in Philadelphia, the colonists 
must have felt that they were making rapid progress. 

139. How a New York Newspaper Won Free Speech. 
Toward the end of the colonial period the newspapers 
began to discuss politics, like the great journals of 
to-day. But when Peter Zenger, editor of a New York 
paper, dared to find fault with Governor Cosby he was 
cast into prison. His trial caused the greatest excitement 
in the colony. To secure the punishment of Zenger, 
Cosby took away from the able lawyers who had agreed 
to defend him the right to practice in New York. All 
hope for Zenger seemed gone. 

But when the trial began the judges were surprised 
to see in the courtroom Andrew Hamilton, a venerable 
and skillful Quaker lawyer who had hurried from Phila- 
delphia to plead the case. In a great speech he declared : 
" It is not the cause of a poor printer, nor of New York 
alone, which the jury is now trying. It is the cause 
of liberty!" 

In spite of all the governor could do, Zenger was 
acquitted. In the crowded courtroom the result was 
received with deafening cheers, and w^hen the chief 
justice threatened the people they answered by cheering 
louder still. Hamilton was the hero of the hour. He 
was given a banquet, a salute was fired in his honor, and 
he was voted the freedom of the city. Never again was 
the right of free speech in such danger in America. 

RELIGIOUS BELIEF AND CUSTOMS 

140. Many Religious Sects Bring Toleration. In 

the Old World each nation wanted only one religion, just 
as it had only one government. When a new way of 



Religions Belief and Customs III 

worship arose, its followers were punished or had to 
leave their homes if they wished to remain true to their 
belief. Many of these sects from different countries 
found new homes in America, where they could worship 
as they pleased. 

At first some of them did not wish other sects to live 
among them. Governor Endicott wanted only Puritans 
in Massachusetts and tried to keep out Episcopalians. 
Peter Stuyvesant encouraged the Dutch church and 
persecuted the Quakers. Governor Berkeley wanted 
only Episcopalians in Virginia and drove away Puritans 
and Baptists. 

Among the early colonies Rhode Island and Mary- 
land set the example of religious toleration, while the 
later ones, like the Quaker colonies and Georgia, either 
allowed religious freedom or treated religious sects 
kindly. The other colonies gradually learned that it 
was best not to quarrel over religious questions. It 
turned out well for America that she tolerated many 
sects, for it not only prevented a state church from 
being set up and supported by taxation, but it also 
induced people of all sorts of beliefs to come to this 
country. Toleration became the rule in America. 

141. Colonial Church Ways. The colonists were 
very much in earnest about their religious ideas and cus- 
toms. At some time in most of the colonies all persons 
were compelled to attend church on Sunday. The min- 
ister was usually the most highly educated person in 
his neighborhood, and was looked up to with great 
respect by all classes of people. They asked his advice 
in family matters as well as in public affairs. The min- 
isters had most influence in New England, and were 
often called in by the governors and judges to advise 
them in regard to the government. 

In most of the colonies the Sabbath was kept very 



1 1 2 Colonial Life 

strictly. Little work was done in the home and none out 
of doors. The people went to church and heard very 
long sermons. The church buildings were plain and, 
in the northern colonies, very uncomfortable in the 
winter, since there was no way of heating them. The 
men wore their heavy coats, and women brought heated 
stones for their hands and feet. In New England, if 
persons fell asleep during the service, an officer tapped 
them on the head with a rod, sometimes gently and 
sometimes severely. In the middle colonies, especially 
in New York, the Sabbath was not kept so strictly as in 
New England. 

142. Severe Punishments. Laws were stricter and 
punishments more severe in colonial times than now. 
In our day criminals are put to death for two crimes only, 
but then there were more than a dozen crimes, in some 
of the colonies, for which a man might suffer death. 

Criminals were more frequently punished in public 
than now. We lock them in jails and prisons where 
people cannot see them, but the colonists put them in 
public places in order that people might see them. In 
almost every county the gallows on which men were 
hanged stood in some public place, while in almost every 
town there were the pillory and the stocks, and now and 
then the ducking stool. Sometimes men were seen with 
great scars on their faces or hands, made by a hot iron 
which burnt in the first letter of their crime. More often 
in some public place a man was to be seen with a curious 
crowd around him pointing to a large letter or word on 
his back or breast. The letter or word showed what his 
offense had been. These were severe ways of making 
people behave themselves. 

143. Witchcraft. A little over two hundred years 
ago people almost everywhere believed in witches. 
That is, they thought that a person migrht become 



Industry and Travel \ 1 3 

the friend and companion of evil spirits and obtain 
their aid in doing harm to others. Very ugly and 
deformed persons were usually the ones accused of 
bringing misfortune or even death upon people whom 
they disliked. Persons supposed to have such a power 
were called witches, and by the laws of all nations, 
including most of the colonies, were to be put to death. 
In 1692, at Salem, Massachusetts, a regular witchcraft 
craze broke out. Some young people acted strangely and 
declared that certain other persons had "bewitched" 
them. In the excitement the craze spread, and large 
numbers of innocent people were thrown into prison on 
the charge of being witches. Nineteen persons were 
tried and hanged before the craze came to an end. The 
people of Salem saw that if the excitement kept on, most 
of them would be in jail and many innocent people be 
put to death. Nearly one hundred years afterward 
witches were still tried and executed in parts of Europe. 
Even now a few people are ignorant enough to believe 
in witches. 

INDUSTRY AND TRAVEL 

144. Colonial Occupations. The colonists were 
engaged in three great occupations : agriculture, manu- 
facture, and commerce. Farming was the chief occupa- 
tion, whether in New England where the farms were 
small, or in the middle group where they were larger, 
or in the south where the great plantations existed. 

Manufacturing was carried on in all the colonies. 
But making cloth, furniture, and other things was a very 
different occupation from what it is now. In colonial 
days it was not done by great machines and in factories, 
but by the simplest sort of tools and almost entirely in 
private houses and small shops. 

145. New England Industries. The fishing and 
shipbuilding industries were most prosperous in New 



114 Colon ia I L ifc 

England. Shipbuilding required sawmills, carpenters, 
ropemakers, and sailmakers. Every year hundreds of 
vessels vsailed in search of the codfish or the whale. They 
came back, added lumber and furs to their cargoes, and 
sailed away for the West Indies or Europe. After sell- 
ing their cargoes the shipowners brought back loads of 
English goods, or sold their vessels and came home and 
built or bought new ones. 

Shipbuilding was thus encouraged and gold and silver 
money was brought in from Europe. Sometimes the 
trader sold his lumber and fish for sugar and molasses 
in the West Indies. This new cargo he brought back to 
New England to be used for food or to be made into 
rum. Often the ship captain carried the rum to Afric^ 
and with it he purchased slaves whom he carried to 
the West Indies or to the southern colonies. Though 
all the colonies built ships and carried on foreign com- 
merce, New England took the lead. By 1750 she was 
building not far from two hundred vessels every year. 

146. Occupations of Middle and Southern Colonies. 
New York led the colonies in the fur trade. The Dutch 
early won the friendship of the Indians, especially of the 
Iroquois, and from a vast region the fur trade flowed to 
this colony. Although New York farms produced well. 
and her people built vessels, no business brought so 
much ready money to the colony as the fur trade. 

Pennsylvania, too, traded in furs, built ships, and 
manufactured many things, but her greatest profit lay in 
raising grain. She built mills and established a large 
trade in grain and flour with the other colonies, but par- 
ticularly with Europe. Her mills were the best in the 
colonies, and Virginia sometimes sent grain to Pennsyl- 
vania to be ground. 

Farming of a peculiar kind belonged to the southern 
colonies. In Maryland and Virginia tobacco, and in the 



Industry and Travel 



"5 



Carolinas and Georgia rice and indigo, were the most 
profitable crops. The great plantations with their hun- 
dreds of acres and large numbers of slaves, were the 
planter's pride. His social standing and influence 
increased as the size of his plantation and the number 
of his slaves increased. So he gave little attention to 
manufacturing, shipbuilding, and trade, and, as a result, 
had to depend on the northern colonies and England 
for many things. 

147. When the Great Ship Came to the Planter's 
Door. The southern planters, when possible, selected 
their homes on some river and near the sea. This made 
it easy to travel from plantation to plantation or from 




THE SOUTHERN PLANTER'S HOME 

The ship from London has tied up at the planter's wharf to load with tobacco 

colony to colony, and enabled the annual ship from Lon- 
don to land at the planter's own wharf. For weeks 
everybody talked of the coming of the ship, of news from 
friends, and of the fine clothes and furniture it would 
bring fresh from their old English homes. 

How all " hands " worked to get the tobacco and other 
products ready for the great vessel! What stir and 
excitement as the ship first came into view, sailing up the 
river ! What joy it brought to every one ! Good news 
from the old home ; letters, presents, and perhaps some 
long absent friend ! Then came the work and noise of 
unloading what the planter had bought, and of loading 



ii6 Colonial Life 

what he had to sell. While all this bustle was going 
on, the planter and his family were entertaining in true 
plantation style, the officers of the ship, and settling up 
accounts and giving orders for'the next year. 

148. Smuggling and Piracy. We have seen how 
England tried by the Navigation Laws to keep other 
nations from trading with the colonies. But the people 
found ways of getting goods without paying the duties. 
At times cargoes were landed in some small bay or river 
where there were no officers, and the goods sold to the 
people or hauled to the larger towns. vSometimes the 
vessels unloaded at the wharves while the officers were 
absent. This smuggling was illegal, but such practices 
had long been carried on by English merchants when 
trading with other nations. 

Pirates as w^ell as smugglers were common in colonial 
times. Pirates w^ere not only sea robbers, but murderers. 
They armed themselves, and their vessels usually carried 
cannon like men-of-war. They captured merchant ves- 
sels, took the money, sold or destroyed the ships and 
cargoes, and often murdered the sailors. Pirates were so 
dangerous that trading vessels had to go armed, and 
many terrible battles were fought in self-defense. 

As late as 1700 piracy was common along the Atlan- 
tic coast. Governor Fletcher of New York even sold 
licenses to the pirates ! His successor. Governor Bello- 
mont, sent a bold seaman, Captain Kidd, to hunt them 
down. Kidd, however, himself turned pirate and became 
the "terror of the sea." But when he dared to return to 
New York, Bellomont caught him and succeeded in driv- 
ing pirates off the coast. The Carolinas suffered even 
more than New York from the visits of sea robbers. 
It was only after hard fighting that the southern colonies 
conquered Blackbeard and other pirates. 

140. Means of Travel. In early colonial days the 



The G^-owth of French Poiver 1 1 7 

most common mode of travel was by boat and river. 
The forests were so dense and settlements so far apart 
that it was easier and safer to sail or row from settle- 
ment to settlement or from colony to colony than to go 
by land. Later, travel on horseback between neighbors 
or villages near each other came into use, and later still 
regular roads between the great towns of the different 
colonies were established and used by travelers, carriers, 
and the stage-coaches. 

The postman on horseback made regular trips, mainly 
between the large towns, carrying whatever letters, 
papers, and bundles people could afford to pay for. In 
the northern and middle colonies routes of travel in- 
creased rapidly as trade grew, but in the southern col- 
onies travel was more difficult because towns were few 
and the planters' homes were far apart. The great 
planters tried to make up for the lack of taverns or inns 
by inviting travelers to stop with them. 

THE STRUGGLE FOR NORTH AMERICA 

THE GROWTH OF FRENCH POWER 

150. A Decisive Indian Battle (1609). When we 
turned aside to study the work of Englishmen in 
America, the French had already settled Port Royal in 
Acadia, and Champlain (§ 19) had laid the foundations of 
New France at Quebec (1608). But in the same year 
that the "Half-Moon" sailed up the Hudson, Champlain 
took part in one of the most important Indian battles 
ever fought. He joined a war party of Algonquins who 
were invading the country of their deadly enemies, the 
Iroquois or Five Nations. 

On the shores of Lake Champlain the hostile tribes 
met and prepared for battle with savage yells. Sud- 
denly the ranks of the Algonquins opened and Cham- 
plain, clad in steel and armed with a weapon never 



Il8 



The Struggle for North Afueriea 



before seen by the Iroquois, came forth. The warriors 
of the Five Nations looked astonished. Champlain fired 
and two chiefs fell. Other shots followed and "the 




FRENCH PRIEST PREACHING TO THE INDIANS 

boldest and fiercest warriors of North America" ran 
frightened through the woods, with the Algonquins in 
hot pursuit. The victory was complete, but from that 
day forward the Iroquois were the enemies of the French, 
and for over one hundred years kept them from moving 
down into New York (§ 98). 

151. The Frenchman and the Indian. The hostility 
of the Iroquois compelled the French, moving westward 
to carry on the fur trade and to convert the Indians, to 
abandon the St. Lawrence route and move up the Ottawa 
River and across to Georgian Bay. On the shores of 



The Grozvth of French Pozver 



119 



the Great Lakes the French priest early established his 
mission and the French fur trader his post. This gave 
France a double hold upon the Indians. The French 
trader lived on more friendly terms with them than did 
the Englishmen. They went with the Indians deep into 
the forests in search of game and fur; paddled up 
and down rivers and lakes with them as boon compan- 
ions; shared their wigwams and camp-fires; joined in 
their sports and pastimes, and often married the dusky 
maidens of the forest. The English did none of these 
things, but instead the majority of them settled down 
on farms or in towns. 

152. First French Expedition to the Mississippi 
(1673). As the French pushed westward, they heard 
rumors of a great river called the " Father of Waters." 
Frontenac, Governor of Canada, sent 
the missionary Marquette and his 
friend Joliet to find the river. They 
paddled slowly on in birch-bark canoes, 
from the Straits of Mackinaw into 
Green Bay and up the Fox River. 
Directed by the Indians, they carried 
their canoes over the "portage" to the 
banks of the Wisconsin. Down this 
picturesque stream they floated till they 
were on the broad bosom of the Missis- 
sippi (1673). (See map on page 120.) 
Borne on the current of the mighty 
stream, they drifted southward till, 
after many days, the mouth of the 
Arkansas was reached. Warned of the 
hostility of the Indians who lived lower 
down the river, the two explorers began 
the long, toilsome return. They entered the Illinois 
River, and finally reached the present site of Chicago. 




MARQUETTE 

A typical French 
missionary 



I20 



The Struggle for NortJi America 



153. La Salle, the French Fur Trader. The story 
of their adventures excited in Canada still greater inter- 
est in that vast and almost unknown region. In 1679 
La Salle started to occupy and.hold the Mississippi Valley 
for the French king. (See map below.) Traveling from 
what is now Kingston by way of the Niagara River, Green 
Bay, the St. Joseph, the Kankakee, and the Illinois rivers, 






Ckamplain's Route, 
Ibis 10 jf.^.^.^.^.^.^^^ 

Marquette and Jolict's 
Route, i6;j ,.,.,_,_,_,., 

^LaSalU's Route to Ft. 
Crevccoeur and return, 
;6;9-i-l-«— I— I— I— 1— l-i— I 




GIL*' 
OF 3IKXIC0 



LaSalles Route from 
Ft. St. Louis to the Gulf, 



FRENCH EXPLORATIONS AND POSTS 



he and his party reached Peoria Lake. Here 
they built a fort. While the great leader re- 
turned for supplies. Father Hennepin floated 
down to the Mississippi, and then slowly 
made his way up that stream to the Falls of 
St. Anthony, where now stand the " Twin 
Cities of the Northwest," St. Paul and Min- 
neapolis. But the hated Iroquois warriors 
burned La Salle's fort, and he gave up his 
attempt for the time. Nothing daunted, however, La 
Salle finally reached the Mississippi by way of the 
Chicago and Illinois rivers and journeyed to the Gulf of 
Mexico (1682). After the custom of that time, the party 
went through the ceremony of taking possession of the 
vast region drained by the Mississippi for the King of 



Preparatory Struggles \2\ 

France. La Salle named it Louisiana in honor of King 
Louis. How rich and splendid a region for a new 
French empire! The English settlements at this time 
occupied only a narrow strip along the Atlantic coast. 

154. French Settlements in the Mississippi Valley. 
From the Gulf of Mexico and from the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence the French had two waterways to the interior 
of North America. Only one other remained, that by 
way of the Hudson and the Mohawk rivers. What use 
France made of these early advantages we shall see. 

In 171 8 New Orleans was founded, giving France 
control of the entrance to the Mississippi. Later a great 
fortress called Louisburg was built to give her control 
of the entrance to the St. Lawrence. (See map, page 120.) 

The Canadian French were also active. They settled 
Kaskaskia, on the Mississippi River, in 1695, and shortly 
afterward Detroit and Vincennes. Many other posts 
were established in the new region, and to-day we find, 
especially along the Mississippi, the Great Lakes and 
their tributaries, many French names. The French thus 
spread themselves over a vast region, hoping to hold it 
till they grew stronger. Their real object was to build 
up a great colonial empire in America. 

PREPARATORY STRUGGLES 

155. Common Causes. The English and the French 
had been rivals in Europe for centuries, and now each 
nation was ambitious to control as much of the soil of 
America as possible. Possession of the soil would not 
only give room for the growth of colonies, but promised 
great wealth on account of the rich trade in furs and 
the more useful trade in fish. Their claims to Amer- 
ican territory, based on explorations and settlements, 
were in conflict at many points. Partly to settle these 
disputes, but at first chiefly because England and France 
fought at home, their children went to war in America. 



122 The Struggle for North America 

156. King William's and Queen Anne's Wars (J689- 
1713)' We have already seen how the English people 
drove out their tyrannical king-, James II., and placed 
William of Orange upon the throne (§ 107). France at 
once took sides with James and a great war began 
between the two countries which lasted for twenty-five 
years. Peace was once made for a short time, but under 
Queen Anne, the successor of William upon the English 
throne, the bitter conflict was continued. 

The English colonists were far superior in numbers, 
but, except for the Five Nations, the Indians all took 
part with the French, The French also had an able 
soldier, Count Frontenac, the governor of Canada, to lead 
them. He planned at first to invade and capture New 
York, thus cutting the English colonies in two, and 
getting possession of their only great waterway to the 
interior. But the Five Nations attacked Canada, and the 
French then adopted the Indian plan of fighting by 
sending small parties of Canadians and Indians to burn 
outlying settlements and massacre their inhabitants. 
Great damage was thus done, and the whole New York 
and New England frontier was kept in constant terror. 

157. Indian Massacres. Schenectady, New York, 
was one of the first places attacked. A fierce band of 
painted Indians, led by French officers, made its way 
upon snowshoes over the deep winter drifts toward 
the little town. They endured cold and hardship ; they 
forded the icy rivers, and at last hid in the woods near 
their unsuspecting prey. Night came on and the peo- 
ple of Schenectady were sleeping peacefully ; even the 
drowsy sentinels dozed at their posts. Suddenly upon 
the icy air rang out the shrill Indian war whoop, and 
from the borders of the wood rushed the savages, intent 
upon plunder and blood. There was little resistance. 
In a moment the town was in flames and its inhabitants 



Preparatory Struggles 



123 



were slaughtered or fleeing half-clad toward Albany. 
Before help came the French and Indians were well 
on their way back to Canada with their prisoners and 
plunder. Such were the dangers of frontier life in war 




INDIANS ON THEIR WAY BACK TO CANADA WITH THEIR PRISONERS 

time. Many other massacres of the same sort took place 
during this long conflict. The most famous were those 
at Salmon Falls, New Hampshire, and at Haverhill and 
Deerfield, Massachusetts. 

158. New England and New York Cooperate (1690). 
The English did not submit tamely to such blows. The 
colonies saw that they must act together if they were to 
defend themselves successfully. Either New York or 
Massachusetts alone was helpless. So after the mas- 
sacre at Schenectady, a meeting between several of the 
exposed colonies was held at New York to agree upon 
joint action (1690). This conference was very impoi tant, 
as it was almost the first meeting of the kind. 

159. English Expeditions and their Results. As a 
result of this meeting a great fleet under Sir William 



124 The Struggle for North America 

Phips was sent to attack Acadia, and Port Royal, its 
chief town, was captured. Later attempts against 
Quebec and Montreal failed, and although Port Royal 
was for a time reoccupied by, the French, a second Eng- 
lish expedition reconquered Acadia. When peace was 
finally made by the treaty of Utrecht (17 13), not only was 
all Acadia given to England, but Newfoundland and the 
Hudson Bay Territory as well. Acadia was renamed 
Nova Scotia, and Port Royal was called Annapolis 
in honor of the queen. So in spite of their terrible 
losses the English colonies gained ground as a result of 
the long warfare. 

160. King George's War (1744-1748). George I. 
and George II. were Germans, and did not understand 
the ways of Englishmen. They depended very much 
upon the advice of a great statesman, Robert Walpole, 
who avoided war just as long as possible. So the colo- 
nies had a long period of rest from war with France. 
But more than ever were they watching and fearing the 
advance of the French from the west and from the north. 

When war finally broke out again in Europe, New 
England sent a great expedition of one hundred vessels 
and several thousand troops against Louisburg, the key 
to the St. Lawrence. The fortress of Louisburg, located 
on Cape Breton Island, was made of heavy stone and 
had cost several million dollars. The French thought it 
could not be taken. But it fell (1745), and the event 
caused great rejoicing throughout the English colonies 
and in Great Britain. The disappointment was very 
great when it was given back to France by the treaty of 
peace (1748). 

THE FINAL STRUGGLE 

161. Immediate Causes of the French and Indian 

War (1754). The preceding wars had nut removed any 
of the causes of trouble between the two sets of colonies, 




North America 
in 1750 

The conflicting Spanish, French 

and English claims 

English I I Spanish dl 

French (£73 Fr^'i'.'i^Sp.'a CD 

Unexplored kt^-A 

SCALE OF Miles 



TJw Final Struggle 125 

but had rather made their rivah-y more bitter. During 
this period, as we have seen, the English population was 
pushing northward and westward toward the headwaters 
of the principal rivers (§ 123). The French, in turn, 
were working southward from Canada and eastward from 
the Mississippi Valley, and had already planted more 
than sixty military posts between the mouths of the St. 
Lawrence and the Mississippi. It was only a question 
of time until rival parties of hunters or explorers would 
come into collision. 

162. The Ohio Company ; Washington's First Public 
Charge. The organization of the Ohio Company has- 
tened the collision between the English and the French. 
A grant of five hundred thousand acres near the head 
of the Ohio was obtained by a company of Virginia 
planters for settlement and for trade in furs. They 
built a road into this region and made preparations to 
send out settlers, when news came to. Virginia that the 
French were already moving into the Ohio Valley. 

Governor Dinwiddle resolved to send young George 
Washington to the French with orders for them to leave 
(1753). It was a dangerous undertaking for a young man 
with a few guides to invade that wild country, filled 
with hostile Indians and French, who loved nothing 
better than to take an Englishman's scalp. But Wash- 
ington made the journey, delivered his message, visited 
the French commander, and saw him preparing to move 
farther south. He returned and reported that the 
French had refused to leave. 

Men were immediately sent to build a fort at the forks 
of the Ohio, but before the fort was finished the French 
floated down the Allegheny and compelled the English 
to surrender (1754). The French completed the work 
and named it Fort Duquesne. (See map, page 127.) 

Washington was already moving into the region with 



126 The Struggle for North America 

a company of Virginia volunteers, while the French 
were marching a larger force southward to meet him. 
After a skirmish, Washington built Fort Necessity, which 
he was compelled to surrender to superior numbers. 
War had begun. Both parties were determined. There 
could be no agreement. Each received aid from the 
home country, and preparations for a great struggle 
were now begun in earnest. 

163. Treaty with the Iroquois. For nearly one hun- 
dred and fifty years the Iroquois^ had been the enemies 
of the French. Again the English sought their aid. 
A meeting with the Indians was held at Albany in the 
summer of 1754. New England, the Middle Colonies, 
Maryland, and Virginia sent their representatives. 

The Iroquois came in slowly, for they were hesitating. 
They, too, saw the meaning of the coming struggle, and 
complained against the English. Hendricks, chief of the 
Mohawks, said: ".Look at the French. They are men; 
they are fortifying everywhere. But, we are ashamed to 
say it, you are like women." The English, however, gave 
the Indians more and costlier presents than ever before, 
and they departed with plerdges of lasting friendship. 

164. The Albany Plan of Union (1754). For a num- 
ber of years leading men in America had been talking 
of a union of the colonies for mutual defense. Benjamin 
Franklin of Pennsylvania, who had risen from a poor 
printer to a place of fame in both Europe and America, 
was heart and soul in favor of united action. He pre- 
pared a plan for bringing the English colonies into a 
league to enable them to act more quickly and with 
greater power. Franklin's plan provided : (/) That the 
chief officer of the united colonies should be a " President- 
General," appointed and paid by the king. {2) That 

'In 1713 the Tuscaroras of North Carolina, a kindred tribe, joined 
the Five Nations. The Iroquois thus became the Six Nations. 



The Final Struggle 



127 



there should be a "Grand Council" elected by the colo- 
nial assemblies, with power to make treaties with the 
Indians, build forts, appoint military officers, raise 
troops, and levy taxes for these purposes. 

This plan the delegates at Albany unanimously rec- 
ommended to the colonies and to the king. But both 
parties rejected it — the colonies because it was too 
aristocratic and the king because it was too democratic. 
Although the colo- 
nies now faced war 
without any regular 
plan of helping each 
other, they were con- 
vinced that some sort 
of union was neces- 
sary. 

165. Braddock's 
Defeat ; Other Expe- 
ditions of 1755. Gen- 
eral Braddock came 
over as commander- 
in-chief of the British, 
and held a congress 
of governors at Alex- 
andria, Virginia. 
Four campaigns were 
planned: (/) Braddock 
was to capture Fort 
Duquesne. {2') Sir 
William Johnson, 
whom the Iroquois 
had adopted, was to 
muster the Mohawks and the New York militia against 
Crown Point, (j) A force was to drive the French from 
Niagara. (^) Nova Scotia was to be subdued. 




FORT DUQUESNE AND ITS APPROACHES 

Shoiving Braddock's line of march, and the line 0/ 
French forts 



128 The Struggle for NortJi America 

But it was easier to plan these expeditions than to 
carry them out. 

Although General Braddock was brave, he was proud 
and overbearing. He had never led an army in America, 
and yet he was seldom willing to listen to the advice of 
Franklin and Washington. With an army of over four- 
teen hundred regulars and militia, Braddock reached the 
Ohio in July. (See map, page 127.) He failed to send 
out sufficient scouts, and only ten miles from Fort 
Duquesne, marching in solid column, he came unex- 
pectedly upon the French and Indians, The foe were 
unseen and their fire was deadly. The British regulars 
fought as if on an open battlefield. They were soon 
falling fast. The Virginia militia took to the trees, and 
fought in true Indian fashion. Washington begged 
Braddock to permit the regulars to do the same, but he 
refused and, sword in hand, forced them to stand in line 
and take the enemy's fire. They grew desperate and 
began to run, but Washington and his Virginia troops 
covered the retreat and saved the panic-stricken forces 
from an Indian massacre. Braddock himself was mor- 
tally wounded, and, although it was only midsummer, 
his ruined army retreated to Philadelphia and went into 
winter quarters. 

All western Pennsylvania and northern Virginia 
were now open to the cruelties of Indian warfare. The 
other expeditions, except the one against Acadia, also 
failed. The Acadians, who were French, had refused 
to become English .subjects, and sympathized with the 
French, although France had given their country to 
England at the end of Queen Anne's war. As a punish- 
ment the English commander carried them from their 
homes and scattered them among the English colonies. 
Many of the exiles endured great hardships, and some 
never found their friends and relatives again. 



The Final Struggle 



129 



166. Two Years of Failure (1756-1757). Meanwhile 
the Seven Years' War had broken out in Europe. Aus- 
tria, France, and Russia united to break the rising power 
of Prussia, whose king was Frederick the Great. Eng- 
land took sides with Prussia, but was too corrupt in her 
government to be strong in war. Her generals bought 
their positions instead of earning them, by bravery on 
the battlefield. 

Hence the generals sent over to America accomplished 
little. Loudon drilled an army all one summer at Hali- 
fax to attack Louisburg ; but learning that the French 
had been reenforced, he abandoned the attack. Aber- 
crombie was another worthless commander. The colo- 
nists showed their contempt for him by calling him 
"Miss Nabbycrombie." The 
English generals planned expe- 
ditions, but the French won the 
victories. 

167. Pitt and the Colonies 

Prepare to Win. Thus far 

France had been victorious in 

America and Europe. England 

was almost in despair when the 

English people turned out their 

worthless ministers and selected 

William Pitt to be the leader of 

the government. He opposed 

corruption in government, and 

believed in the people. Under 

his inspiring leadership both 

England and America put forth 

great efforts. More troops under 

able commanders were hurried 

to America, while the colonies, catching the enthusiasm, 

raised a larger number of militia than ever before. 
10 




WILLIAM PITT 

From a print engraved by W. Holl 
frotn a portrait painted by 
Richard Brompto/n, recently in 
the possession of Earl Stanhope. 
Reproduced by permission from 
the Emmett collection in the New 
York Public Library 



I30 



TJie Struggle for North America 



i68. Surrenderor Louisburg (1758). Pitt sent a great 
fleet and army under Admiral Boscawen and Generals 
Amherst and Wolfe against Louisburg (§ 160). In six 
weeks the solid walls of this mighty fortress were shat- 
tered and the French garrison of five thousand soldiers 
surrendered. 

169. Attack on Ticonderoga Fails. Another gen- 
eral, George Howe, was sent over to take charge of an 
expedition against Fort Ticonderoga, a French strong- 
hold which threatened to break the line of communi- 
cation between New England and New York. Troops 
came from both sections, amounting, with the regulars, 
to fifteen thousand, the largest army yet assembled in 
America. Everything promised success till General 

Howe was killed in a skirmish. 
Abercrombie was left in com- 
mand and advanced upon Ticon- 
deroga. Although he had many 
more troops than Montcalm, the 
French general, and could have 
won by a siege, he ordered a 
bayonet charge upon the French 
works. Six times he sent his 
brave troops to the impossible 
task while he watched the 
slaughter from a safe distance. 
Nearly two thousand men fell 
that day, the largest number 
killed in an American battle up 
to that time. 

170. Fort Duquesne Be- 
comes Fort Pitt (1758). Mean- 
while stirring events had been 
taking place in the Ohio Valley. Ever since the defeat 
of Braddock, Washington had been dissatisfied with the 




LOUIS JOSEPH DE MONTCALM 

From a colored print, painted 
and engrai<ed by Antoine Fran- 
cois Sergent in lygo. Repro- 
duced by permission frotn the 
Enimett collection in the New 
York I'ublic Library 




Wdf.FK's Vic mm- ox TlIK IIKIi-.lirs OK AliKAIIAM 
A hit at bio:i< to I-'rencli supremacy in America 



The Final Struggle 131 

poor protection given to the frontiers. But at last one 
of Pitt's able generals, Forbes, took charge of troops 
gathered from the Carolinas, Virginia, Maryland, and 
Pennsylvania, for the capture of Fort Duquesne. 

From June till September the army made its way 
slowly over the mountains toward the fort. In the first 
skirmish the English were beaten, but Washington's mer 
were on hand again, and prevented a rout and massacre 
The Indians deserted, and the French, now greatly out 
numbered, retreated, after burning the fort. The Eng- 
lish flag was raised and the place was named Fort Pitt 
— later Pittsburgh — in honor of the- Englishman whose 
energy and enthusiasm had made victory possible. 

171. Pitt's Plans for 1759. Pitt's preparations for 
1759 were on a more gigantic scale than ever. He sent 
more money to help Frederick the Great of Prussia (§ 166), 
and more men to help the Americans. Prideaux and Sir 
William Johnson were to attack Montreal by way of 
Niagara. General Amherst was to move by way of Lake 
Champlain to aid Wolfe in a great attack on Quebec. 
The colonies now put forth their greatest efforts. All 
told, the British and colonial troops numbered over fifty 
thousand men. It was a year of splendid victories for 
England on land and sea, in Europe, in India, and in 
America. 

172. Expedition Against Quebec. While Sir William 
Johnson was capturing Niagara, rebuilding Fort Oswego, 
and thus forever breaking the French communication 
with the Mississippi by way of the Ohio, and while Gen- 
eral Amherst was slowly forcing the French to abandon 
Ticonderoga and Crown Point, General Wolfe was mov- 
ing his fleet and army up the St. Lawrence. 

Quebec, after Louisburg fell, was the most powerful 
post the French possessed; it was the new key to Canada 
(see map, page 120). The fortress was on a high bluff 



U2 



The Struggle for North America 



where the St. Charles enters the St. Lawrence, and was 
surrounded by almost perpendicular walls of solid rock. 
Into the town and fortress the brave and energetic Mont- 
calm had gathered about sixteen thousand defenders. 

Wolfe had nine thousand men. His cannon easily 
destroyed the lower town, but this gave no advantage. 
For three months he made every effort known to a brave 
and skillful man to find a point of attack. But the task 
seemed hopeless. Something must be done ; winter was 
approaching and Amherst had failed to join him. 

173. The Fall of Quebec ; A Decisive Victory (1759). 
Finally Wolfe discovered a zigzag path up the steep 

bluffs, where two men might 
clamber up abreast. During 
the night the English army 
scaled the rocky wall, and 
by morning stood in battle 
array on the Heights of 
Abraham. 

Wolfe was busy passing 
along the lines and encour- 
aging his men. They had 
not long to wait. Montcalm 
and his army moved to the 
attack. The English re- 
i*^HS;^^5^ '--^^^^^^/^^Wd' served their fire. The 
^^^^^'^s-^S^^^ French were within forty 
\iV^^/3^ -^^^r ' paces when Wolfe's troops 

poured in three successive 

JAMKS WOLFE ^ 

Prom a rare contemporary mezzotint VOlleyS, followed by a terri- 

engraved by Richard Houston. Repro- ,11 1 / 

duced by permission from the Emmet t blC bayOUCt Charfife (SCe PIC- 

collectton in the New York Public . . & \ r 

i^ibrary ture faciug page 131). The 

French gave way. Wolfe fell thrice wounded. As he 
was borne to the rear he heard the cry of victory, and 
said, "Now God be praised; I die happy." Montcalm 




The Results of the War 133 

had also been mortally wounded, and when told he 
must soon die, replied, "So much the better; I shall not 
live to see the surrender of Quebec." 

Canada has erected to the two noble men a common 
monument, bearing the following inscription : " Valor 
gave a united death. History a united fame, Posterity a 
united monument." 

The loss of Quebec was a fatal blow to French 
supremacy in America. The English colonies were 
wild with joy, as the news of the great victory spread 
over the land. Bells were rung and guns fired, bonfires 
lighted the hills and candles illuminated the houses, 
although every one mourned the death of Wolfe. The 
next year Montreal surrendered to Amherst, and the 
dream of a New France had passed away forever. 

THE RESULTS OF THE WAR 

174. The Meaning to America. By the treaty of 
peace (1763), England came into possession of all the 
country from Hudson's Bay to the Gulf of Mexico, and 
from the Atlantic to the Mississippi, with the exception 
of New Orleans, which France ceded to Spain along with 
the region west of the Mississippi. America seemed 
destined for the spread of English ideas and institutions 
rather than of French. Such a result meant a great deal 
to America and to the world (§ 14). 

In all French North America there was no represent- 
ative assembly, town meeting, or trial by jury. In the 
English colonies the governments were by the people 
and for the people. Among the French colonies the 
government was by the king and his officers, and for the 
king and his officers. The French settlers had few 
rights and privileges. The destruction of French power 
meant also that America was to have religious freedom, 
with many sects living happily together, instead of a 
state religion such as they had then in Canada. 



^34 The Struggle for North America 

175. Pontiac's Conspiracy. The Indians of the North- 
west were so much attached to the easy manners and social 
habits of the French that they refused to submit to Eng- 
lish authority. Pontiac, an able Ottawa chief, formed a 
conspiracy, and the tribes of the region rose in revolt 
(1763). They captured many forts by ambuscades and 
stratagems, and hundreds of frontier families were mas- 
sacred or driven from their homes. Pontiac was finally 
defeated and peace was restored. 

176. Both England and the Colonies Deep in Debt. 
Another important result of the war was the increase of 
the debt of England to the enormous amount of seven 
hundred million dollars. The colonies, too, had heavy 
debts, although they raised by taxation nearly twenty 
million dollars during the war. This was a large sum 
when we consider how new the country was and how 
little money it had. England herself felt that this was 
more than the colonies' share, for she paid them back 
about five million dollars. 

177. Military Training. All the intercolonial wars 
had been a school in which Americans learned much 
about military operations. They learned what war meant 
and what it cost in men and money. They had gained 
much knowledge about raising troops, about feeding, 
clothing, and arming them, and about the conduct of 
expeditions by land and sea. 

These wars, too, gave the colonists confidence in the 
skill and courage of their troops, for it happened more 
than once that they understood fighting in the American 
forests far better than the king's regulars. Besides, the 
struggle with the French had been an excellent training 
school for future American officers. Many of them had 
served as scouts, captains, and colonels, and had seen 
the weak and the vStrong points of the British generals. 

178. Taught Value of Cooperation. The colonists 



The Results of the War 135 

learned tlie value of common effort, and were prepared 
for a closer union. Soldiers of different colonies had 
been thrown together in the same campaigns. They 
had marched together, faced the enemy shoulder to 
shoulder, rejoiced over the same victories and sorrowed 
over the same defeats. Their local differences had been 
put aside while common ideas and sympathetic feelings 
had begun to grow. The very greatness of the future 
now opening before the colonists compelled them to 
think of themselves as one people. 

179. Dependence on England Lessened. The Amer 
icans had become less dependent upon England than ever 
before, because of the self-confidence gained by them in 
the war, and because never again would an English fleet 
or army be required to protect the English colonists from 
their ancient enemies in Canada. 

When the treaty of peace between England and France 
was being made the French minister said to the Eng- 
lish, '' I wonder that your great Pitt should be so attached 
to the acquisition of Canada. In the hands of France it 
will always be of service to you to keep your colonies in 
that dependence which they will not fail to shake off the 
moment Canada be ceded." There were some in Eng- 
land who feared the same result. But whether this fear 
should ever come true or not will largely depend upon the 
treatment of the colonists by the king and Parliament. 

A writer asked : " What will be the consequence, to 
have a numerous, hardy, independent people, possessed 
of a strong country, communicating little or not at all 
with England?" Benjamin Franklin declared that 
" While the government is mild and just . . . people 
will be dutiful and obedient. The waves do not rise but 
when the winds blow." What if England could have 
seen how soon the storm was to burst in all its fury ? 



€f)e ^erioH of tfje Jiebolution 

SEPARATION FROM ENGLAND AND UNION 
AMONG THE COLONIES 

GENERAL CAUSES OF THE CONFLICT 

i8o. Growing Differences Between Americans and 
English. Most of the people of the thirteen colonies 
came to America because they were dissatisfied with 
their treatment in Europe. They were more willing to 
accept new ideas than the people left behind, and the 
new ways of living which they had to learn in America 
made them still more different from Englishmen in their 
thinking and acting. 

The colonists were more nearly on the same level in 
regard to social position and wealth than people in Eng- 
land (§ 125). If Englishmen at home resisted tyranny we 
should expect the American colonists to be even more 
ready to oppose laws they considered unjust. 

181. England's Colonial Policy. All European 
nations, up to this time, had looked upon their colo- 
nies as being for the benefit of the mother countries. 
Although England was more kind to her colonies than 
any other nation, she, too, managed them, especially in 
matters of trade, for her own advantage. This was done 
in two ways : first, by not allowing the colonists to trade 
with foreign nations, except under laws made by the 
mother country ; second, by permitting the colonies to 
manufacture only those articles which were not made in 
England. 

The following regulations will show how England 
controlled the trade of the thirteen colonies : 

/. The Navigation Acts forced the colonists to bring 
over all goods either in their own or English vessels, 

(136) 



General Causes of the Coijitct 137 

and to send their chief products to England before they 
could sell them to other countries (§43). 

2. Another law prohibited the putting of colonial 
wool or woolen manufactures upon any ship, or the 
loading of these articles " upon any horse, cart, or other 
carriage to be exported out of said English plantations 
(colonies) to any of the other said plantations." This 
law was intended to help the wool growers of England. 
It certainly injured the wool growers of America. 

J. In 1732 a law declared that "making hats in 
America was an ill practice." and prohibited their manu- 
facture. 

4. The "Sugar Act" (1733) placed a very high tariff 
on all sugar and molasses imported from the Spanish 
and French West India Islands. This was the most 
profitable trade carried on by the Americans, as we have 
already seen (§ 145), and, rather than give it up, they 
smuggled more than ever. 

5. Other similar laws, such as that prohibiting iron 
works, were passed. These laws caused dissatisfaction 
].n America, although England, in order to encourage 
the colonies to produce articles not made or raised at 
home, offered bounties on naval stores and other 
products. 

182. Checks to Arbitrary Government in America. 
In our study of the colonies we often saw the royal 
governors quarreling with colonial legislatures. The 
governors represented the king, and the assemblies the 
people. The overbearing conduct of royal officers in 
America was checked by the fact that their salaries 
were to be paid by the colonial assemblies. If the gov- 
ernors ruled too tyrannically the people, through their 
representatives in the assemblies, could criticise their 
conduct, and, if necessary, refuse to pay their salaries. 
The result was that hard laws were sometimes not 



1.8 



Separation from England 



strictly enforced, and even the judges were not always 
severe on persons found guilty. 

All these things might have continued for a long time 
without serious results had not a new monarch ascended 
the throne of Great Britain whose plan of government 
divided the English race and almost destroyed the glory 
won for England by the genius of William Pitt. 

183. Character of George III. When George III. 
came to the throne much of the authority of the king 
had passed into the hands of Par- 
liament (1760). He was resolved, 
however, to regain this power and 
rule according to his own will. 

But it was not an easy task to 
check the progress toward self- 
government in England, and the 
king found it necessary to bribe 
the majority in Parliament by 
using money or by giving offices 
"^ to them or to their friends. The 
ablest and noblest statesmen of 
England turned against him. 
Among these were Pitt, Camden, 
Burke, Rockingham, Richmond, 
and Fox. London mobs pursued 
and stoned the king's carriage for 
his treatment of one of the mem- 
Many Englishmen felt that the 
liberty won by their own two revolutions was in great 
danger from the new king. 

If George III. was determined to rule England in such 
a way, it is no great wonder that he had little regard for 
the rights and privileges of his subjects in America. His 
bribed Parliament soon began to pass measures which 
drove the colonies first into union and then into rebellion. 




GEORGE III., KING OF 
ENGLAND 

From the portrait by Thomas 

Gainsborough ii'hich hangs in 

the private audience chamber 

at Windsor Castle 

bers of Parliament. 



The Question of Taxation 139 

THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF 
ENGLISHMEN 

THE QUESTION OF TAXATION 

184. Fundamental Cause of the Revolution. The 

acts of Great Britain which follow were the immediate 
causes of hostility toward England and of the rapid 
growth of union among the colonies. The colonists 
claimed that they were Englishmen, and entitled to all 
the rights of the British constitution, as if they had 
been "abiding and born within the realm of England." 
This was the general principle upon which the Ameri- 
cans opposed every tyrannical measure of king and Par- 
liament up to 1776, but to make this opposition success- 
ful the colonies were compelled to unite. The struggle 
to force king and Parliament to grant the colonists the 
rights of Englishmen, and hence to repeal the acts 
which violated these rights, makes up the first part of 
the Revolution. 

185. Enforcing the Navigation Laws. George III.'s 
new plan of governing America began by a vigorous 
attempt to break up smuggling and collect the customs 
duties more regularly. 

/. The Writs of Assistance {1761). The custom-house 
ofl&cers in Boston were ordered to use general search war- 
rants, called " writs of assistance," to discover smuggled 
goods. Armed with these documents the officers could 
enter any man's house at any time without giving a 
reason and search it from cellar to garret. The mer- 
chants resolved to oppose the use of such writs. With 
James Otis as their lawyer, they carried the case to the 
courts. Otis resigned a royal office in order to plead the 
cause of the merchants. The court's decision, however, 
was against them, but the speech of Otis sounded the 
*' keynote" of the contest for the next fifteen years-- 



140 The Struggle for the Rights of Englishmen 



8 






" Our ancestors as British subjects, and wc their descend- 
ants, are entitled to all those rights by the British con- 
stitution — as much as the inhabitants of London or 
Bristol. A man's house is his castle, and while he is 
quiet is as well guarded as a prince in his castle." No 
more writs were used in Boston, 

2. War Vessels and Admiralty Courts. The failure to 
prevent smuggling by the writs of assistance led Eng- 
land to send ships of war to America to 
catch smugglers ( 1 763). When caught they 
were tried in admiralty courts without jury, 
in violation, the colonists claimed, of one 
of the oldest English rights. Vessels and 
cargoes were seized, trade with the West 
Indies was greatly injured, and American 
merchants began a correspondence looking 
toward united opposition. But America 
was soon in the midst of greater trials and 
greater excitement. 

186. The Stamp Act (1765). The above 
measures were taken to enforce old laws, 
but the Stamp Act was a new law. It pro- 
posed to take money directly from the 
pockets of the people, because by its terms 
all licenses to do business or to marry, all 
bonds, all deeds to property, all bills of 
merchandise, and all other legal writings, 
had to be on stamped paper. The cost of 
this paper varied from one cent to fifty 
dollars, according to the value of the stamp 
printed on it. 

Such a tax was the more dangerous 
because the money raised was intended, so 
the king said, to keep a standing army in America to 
protect the people against foreign foes and Indians. 




STAMPS USED 
IN 1765 



The Question of Taxation 



141 



The colonists took alarm, and declared that " taxation 
without representation is tyranny." They did not wish 
to be represented in Parliament, but wanted the king, 
when he needed money, to obtain it by the vote of the 
colonial assemblies, as had been done formerly. They 
resolved not to give up the right to tax themselves, and 
quickly united to oppose the Stamp Act. 

187. Resistance to the Stamp Act ; The Sons of 
Liberty. The bolder citizens in the larger towns formed 
a secret society called the " Sons of Liberty," to resist 




RESISTANCE TO THE STAMP ACT 

In these riots the stamp agent was often compelled to ride a rail 
through the streets 

the Stamp Act. They compelled stamp officers to resign, 
posted handbills denouncing the law, and called public 
meetings. Sometimes mobs paraded the streets, crying : 
" Liberty, property, and no stamps ! " and compelled 
stamp agents to shout this motto. 

In New York, where the royal governor had threat- 
ened to order the British soldiers to fire on the people, 
the " Sons of Liberty " formed a torchlight procession 
and carried images dressed to represent the governor 
and Satan. They seized the governor's best carriage, 



342 The Struggle for the Rights of Englishmen 

placed the images in it, side by side, and marched about 
town. Finally, in full sight of the enraged governor and 
soldiers, a bonfire was made of the images and carriage. 
i88. Merchants Sign Non-Importation Agreements. 
The merchants pledged themselves not to import Eng- 
lish goods till the Stamp Act was repealed. This agree- 
ment checked manufacturing in England and threw 
hundreds of English laborers out of work. English 
merchants began to storm Parliament with petitions 
calling for the repeal of the Stamp Act. 

In the colonies home manufactures became popular 
largely through the efforts of the mothers and daugh- 
ters, who met and pledged themselves to make in their 

own homes the goods for- 
merly obtained from England. 
Thus the " Daughters of Lib- 
erty " encouraged Americans 
to begin home manufacture. 
189. Correspondence 
Among Colonial Legisla- 
tures. At the first news of the 
Stamp Act, Massachusetts, led 
by Samuel Adams and James 
Otis, sent word to the other 
legislatures that she had as- 
serted the rights of her citizens 
as "free-born subjects of Great 
Britain." Other colonies did 
likewise, and informed one 
another of their action. 

In Virginia, Patrick Henry, 
a new member of the House 
of Burgesses, introduced and carried by his fiery eloquence 
resolutions agreeing in principle with Otis (§ 185). He 
declared that the people of Virginia had the rights of 




JAMES OTIS 

From a paintiiif by J. D. Blackburn, 
owned by Mrs. ileiiry D. Rog-ers, Bos- 
tonj, Mass.. and hum,'^ in the Bostonian 
Society rooms, Old State House, Boston 



The Question of Taxation 



143 



Englishnien and were not bound to obey the Stamp Act; 
that no authority but their own assembly could tax 
them; and that any person asserting the contrary was an 
enemy of Virginia. 




.^^ j^ (^^ From s 

PATRICK HENRY^ ADDRESSING THE HOUSE OF BURGESSES 

He stirred the burgesses by the fiery words : " Caesar 
had his Brutus; Charles the First his Cromwell, and 
George the Third" — ["Treason!" shouted the Speaker] 
— " may profit by their example ! " 

The sentiment for united action had now grown so 
strong that a Congress was called for to decide upon the 
future course of the colonies. 

190. The Stamp Act Congress. Delegates from nine 
colonies met at New York in October, 1765. Among 
them were James Otis, Christopher Gadsden and John 
Rutledge of South Carolina, John Dickinson of Pennsyl- 
vania, and Robert and Philip Livingston of New York. 
Here was a Congress of twenty-eight delegates, repre- 
senting widely separated colonies, planning open opposi- 
tion to king and Parliament. The most important act 
of this meeting was its Declaration of Rights, asserting ; 



144 '^^^'■' Struggle for the Rights of Englishmen 



(/) That the colonists owe the same allegiance to the 
Crown as other Englishmen. {2) That they are entitled 
to all the rights and liberties of natural-born subjects, 
(j) That it is an undoubted right of Englishmen to be 
taxed only by their own representatives, ij) That the 
people of the colonies cannot be represented in Parlia- 
ment, (j) That only their own representatives can tax 
them. {6) That it is unconstitutional for Parliament to 
grant to the king the property of the colonists. (7) That 
trial by jury and the right of petition are the privileges 
of every British subject. 

This document taught the people their rights and 
made known the principles on which the colonies were 
united against England. Christopher Gadsden said in 
this Congress: "There ought to be no New England 

man, no New Yorker known on 
the continent, but all of us 
Americans." 

A loyal address was sent to 
the king and petitions were pre- 
sented to Parliament, showing 
that at that time the Americans 
had no idea of demanding inde- 
pendence. 

191. Repeal of the Stamp 
Act (1766). The outcry against 
the act led to spirited debates 
in Parliament. The great Ed- 
mund Burke favored repeal 
because it was not %vise to tax 
America, while William Pitt and 
Lord Camden argued for repeal 
because England had )io right to tax America. Pitt be- 
came a greater favorite with the colonists than ever (§ 167). 
He praised them and said : " I rejoice that America has 




t-LMUNa BLRKL 

From a stipple engraving by M. 
Benedetti (a pupil of F. Francesco 
Bartolozzi), after a portrait 
painted in lyjs by Sir Joshua 
Reynolds 



TJie Question of Taxation 145 

resisted. Three millions of people so dead to all the 
feelings of liberty as voluntarily to submit to be slaves, 
would have been fit instruments to make slaves of our- 
selves." The king was obliged to make Lord Rocking- 
ham, a friend of America, prime minister. The agitation 
in the colonies and the loss of trade in England forced 
the repeal of the Stamp Act, even agai:^st the stubborn 
will of George III. Great rejoicings followed in both 
England and America — illuminations, bonfires, public 
meetings, and votes of thanks. 

But although Parliament repealed the Stamp Act, it 
passed the Declaratory Act, to please the king, asserting 
its right to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever. 

192. The Effects of the Stamp Act. The effects of 
the Stamp Act and of the struggle against it were of the 
greatest importance. 

1. A strong feeling in favor of united action grew 
up among the colonies. America discovered for the first 
time her own strength. 

2. She also discovered that she had powerful friends 
and much sympathy in England. 

J. The king and his supporters had found friends in 
America. The royal officers and many very influential 
Americans favored the Stamp Act and opposed the 
measures taken to secure its repeal. The friends of the 
king in both England and America were called Tories, 
while the opponents of the king's measures in both 
countries were called Whigs. 

193. New Taxes in an Old Way (1767). The colo- 
nies had objected to the Stamp Act because it was an 
internal tax. Parliament now proposed to raise taxes by 
the old method of duties on imported goods, and there- 
fore taxed all tea, glass, paper, and paints brought into 
the colonies. 

The Americans again objected, not only because they 
11 



146 The Struggle for the Rights of Englishmen 



were taxed, but because the taxes were to be used for 
new and dangerous purposes. Heretofore the legis- 
latures had had some control over the royal officers 
(§182), but now governors, judges, and others would 
act as the king wished, for he was to pay their salaries 
out of the new taxes, and was even to give pensions to 
whom he pleased. 

Parliament also passed a law to take away the powers 
of the New York Assembly because it refused to provide 
quarters for British troops. No sooner had the news of 
the new Acts arrived than all America was again busy 
reviving the Sons of Liberty, the non-importation agree- 
ments, and correspondence between assemblies. 

194. The Massachusetts Circular Letter and the 
King's Commands (1768). A circular letter, penned by 
Samuel Adams and passed by the Massachusetts As- 
sembly, was sent to the other 
colonies. It reasserted the rights 
of the colonists, declared their loy- 
alty, and appealed for united action 
in opposing the new taxes. The 
colonies gave enthusiastic replies. 
The king was furious, and com- 
manded Massachusetts to with- 
draw her letter, and the other 
assemblies to "treat it with con- 
tempt." If the legislatures dis- 
obeyed, the governors were com- 
manded to send them home. Not 
one obeyed. 

The king had been defied. He 
ordered two regiments to Boston 
to assist in enforcing the new tax 
laws. The people were indignant, and there were fre- 
quent quarrels between the townspeople and the soldiers. 




SAMUEL ADAMS 

From the original painting by 
John Singleton Copley^ repre 
senting Adams in 177/, now 
hung in the Museum of Fine 
Arts, Boston 



The Question of Taxation 



H7 



-^^^- lifel'.-' 



[H :i, a; 



195. The Boston Massacre; Resistance in Other 
Colonies. In 1770 trouble occurred in Boston, and sev- 
eral citizens were : 
shot by the soldiers. 
This was called the 
" Boston Massacre." 
A town meeting 
was held in the Old 
South Meetinghouse 
and the immediate 
removal of the 
soldiers was de- 
manded. Samuel 
Adams presented 
the demands to 
the governor, and 
the soldiers were 
"immediately re- 
moved." 

In other colonies 
violent outbreaks 
occurred. A band 
of Rhode Islanders 
burned the king's 
revenue vessel, the 
"Gaspe." In New 
York the king's sol- 
diers and the citi- 
zens had a skirmish 
over the liberty pole which the soldiers had destroyed. 
This event is called the Battle of Golden Hill. 

The governor of North Carolina oppressed the people 
until they resisted. They came together under the name 
of " Regulators," and fought a bloody battle with him at 
Alamance, but were defeated. 








w _ ^ * From a photograph 

THE OLD SOUTH MEETINGHOUSE 

Besides being the 7neeting place for Boston's 

citizens, British troops occupied it during 

the siege of the city 



348 The Struggle for the Rights of Englishmen 



196. Lord North's Tea Tricks. The news from 
America did not make the king happier. English mer- 
chants were beginning to grumble and petition again, for 

trade with America had fallen 
off between three and four 
millions of dollars. To induce 
the colonies to break their 
agreement and buy English 
goods once more, all the new 
duties were repealed except 
the one on tea. George III. 
and his prime minister, Lord 
North, declared that "there 
must always be one tax to 
keep up the right." The ma- 
jority of the colonies, how- 
ever,held true to their pledges 
to keep out English tea. 

But something had to be 
done, for the East India Com- 




FREDERICK, LORD NORTH, EARL 
OF GUILDFORD 



From a rare mezzotint portrait made 
i» ms by Sir Nathaniel Dance. Re- 
produced by permission from the Em- T^Q-n-sT- Ax-ViiVVi ■hrmin-'hf \\\c^ fc^o 
mett collection in the New York Public paUy W UlCU OrOUgnt tne tea 

Library f^^^ QhSxid. was almost bank- 

rupt. The second and shrewdest trick was now played. 
The heaviest duty on tea was paid at English ports on 
its way to America. This duty was taken off, and the 
colonists could get tea from England cheaper than they 
could smuggle it from Holland or than Englishmen 
could get it at home. 

The king thought that Americans would now surely 
pay the small tax in their own ports and thus be trapped 
into acknowledging England's right to tax them. The 
East India Company quickly sent tea ships to various 
American ports. Now, indeed, came severe tests. But 
fortunately the colonies were prepared to meet the new 
danger, by a new organization just springing into activity. 



TJie Question of Taxation 



149 



197. The Committees of Correspondence. In 1772 
the Boston town meeting, on motion of Samuel Adams, 
appointed a committee to correspond with other Massa- 
chusetts towns, Adams' object was to keep the people 
of that colony united by letting the different towns know 
what was going on in Boston. In a short time each 
town had its Committee of Correspondence hard at 
work gathering news and sending it from place to place 
by means of rapid riders. 

The next year the Virginia House of Burgesses ap- 
pointed a committee to correspond with the other colo- 
nies. Other assemblies followed this example, and thus 
all parts of the country came into close touch. These 
committees were 
formed none too 
soon, for the tea 
ships were already 
on their way to 
America. 

198. The Boston 
Tea Party (1773). 
When the tea ships 
reached New York 
and Philadelphia, 
great public meet- 
ings forced the tea 
agents to resign, 
and to send the tea 
back. But in Boston 
the agents refused 
to resign and the 
Committee of Cor- 
respondence called a monster public meeting which 
decided that no tea should be landed. 

A second town meeting of seven thousand country and 




:---.: t !P?K& 



r^rf^^^^p] 




From a photograph 



FANEUIL HALL, BOSTON 

A famous meeting place for patriots preceding 

and during the Revolutionary War, and called the 

" Cradle of Liberty" 



1 50 The Struggle for the Rights of EuglisJimeti 

city people was held in the Old South Meetinghouse. They 
listened to .speeches by vSamuel Adams and others, and 
resolved once more that the tea should never be landed. 

They .sent the owner of the tea ships to get the gov- 
ernor's permission to go back to England. While the 
audience was waiting some one aroused great applause 
by asking "how tea would taste in salt water." As 
night came on, candles were brought in. The owner 
finally came and told the people that the governor had 
refused to permit the tea to go back. '* This meeting," 
said Samuel Adams, " can do nothing more to save the 
country." 

Immediately the war whoop of the " Mohawks " came 
from the streets and was answered from the gallery. 
The great crowd rushed out and followed to the wharf 
a band of persons disguised as Indians. There they 
quietly witnessed the throwing of three hundred and 
forty-two chests of tea into the sea. No other property 
was destroyed. The Committees of Correspondence and 
the town meetings had .shown what they could do. 

199. The Feeling in Other Colonies. That very 
night riders hurried the news to other Massachusetts 
towns, and on the next day Paul Revere, the great 
courier of the Revolution, was riding toward New York 
and Philadelphia with the news of what Boston had 
done. Everywhere his story was received with rejoic- 
ing. Great meetings were held in the towns along his 
route and far to the southward, which praised the people 
of Boston for destroying the tea. Other towns had " tea 
parties " of their own. At Annapolis a band of resolute 
men compelled a rich Tory to set fire to his own tea 
ship, while in Charleston a great mass meeting com- 
pelled the tea agents to resign. The tea was stored in 
a cellar, and after the war began was sold by South Caro- 
lina for the public good. 



Parliament Punishes the Colonies 



151 



PARLIAMENT PUNISHES THE COLONIES 

200. England Strikes Back; The Intolerable Acts 
of 1774. England looked upon the Boston "tea party" 
as the action of a "tumultuous and riotous rabble." 
"The town of Boston," said an Englishman, "ought to 
be knocked about their ears and destroyed." Parliament 
passed four important measures : 

/. The Port Bill. This shut off all trade with Boston 
until the tea was paid for. Her people were to be starved 
into submission. But the colonists, by their Committees 
of Correspondence, sent contributions of money and 
clothing to the suffering town. "We 
claim a share in your sufferings," said 
a letter from another colony. " Hold 
on and hold out to the last. If you 
fail, all will be over," said others. 

2. The Regulating Act. By this law 
the charter of Massachusetts, granted 
by William and Mary, was greatly 
changed. Members of the upper 
house, judges, sheriffs, and others, 
were not only to be appointed but 
paid and removed almost entirely by <4^ 
the governor's authority. Even town 
meetings were abolished. This was y\^^^f^-) r- %y^'v^, 
one of the most dangerous acts ever ^ " ''''"'''"' V^' " 
passed by Parliament. It alarmed '^ British regular 
every colony on the continent. What were their char- 
ters and governments worth if Parliament could alter 
them when it pleased ? 

J. An act providing that an officer or soldier who 
committed murder in Massachusetts might be sent for trial 
to Englarid or to some other colony. This law was intended 
to make officers and soldiers more active and fearless in 
enforcing the law. 




1 5 2 The Struggle for the Rights of Englishmen 



4. The Qiiebee Aet extended the southern boundary of 
Canada down to the Ohio River. This act gave to Canada 
land claimed by four English colonies, and would pre- 
vent them from ever growing to the westward. 

201. General Gage Sent to Boston ; Patriotic Words. 
To cap the climax, General Gage, with four regiments 
of regulars, was ordered to Boston. As military gov- 
ernor, he was told to enforce the Acts at the point of 
the bayonet, if need be, and to send Samuel Adams 
and John Hancock, two famous patriot leaders in Massa- 
chusetts, to England for trial. The friends of America 
in Parliament fought these measures, but in vain. 

The news of these measures sent a flame of indigna- 
tion throughout America. " Don't pay for an ounce of 
the tea," wrote Christopher Gadsden of South Carolina. 
Patrick Henry, in Virginia, declared, "We must fight. 
I repeat it, sir, we must fight." George Washington was 

ready, for he said, " I will 
raise one thousand men, sub- 
sist them at my own ex- 
pense, and march myself at 
their head for the relief of 
Boston." Maryland declared 
that these acts "would lay 
the foundation for the 
utter destruction of British 
America." 

202. The First Conti- 
nental Congress (1774). In 
this spirit the First Conti- 
nental Congress met in Car- 
penters' Hall, Philadelphia. 
It was the greatest meeting 
of great Americans yet held. They came from all the 
colonies except Georgia. Some of them were acquainted 




PATRICK HENRY 

After the painting by Thomas Sully, 
owned by William Vvirt Henry, the 
orator's grandson, Richmond, Virginia 



Parliament Punishes the Colonies 



153 



through correspondence ; others were known from their 
writings ; but most of them had never met face to face. 

Here Samuel Adams, author of the " Circular Letter," 
met Richard Henry Lee 
of Virginia, and they be- 
came lifelong friends. 
Here, too, was John 
Dickinson of Pennsyl- 
vania, writer of the 
"Farmer's Letters" 
which all the members 
had read. Patrick Henry 
and John Adams, the two 
•great orators of the Rev- 
olution, listened to each 
other for the first time, 
and Roger Sherman of 
Connecticut, who had 
once learned the shoe- 
maker's trade, was wel- 
comed by the Rutledges, 
who were proud planters 
from South Carolina. 

George Washington, 
the man to lead their 
armies, was there. Men 
of all sorts of religious opinions were gathered in 
Carpenters' Hall — Congregationalists, Presbyterians, 
Huguenots, Episcopalians, Baptists, and Quakers. Never- 
theless, these men were resolved to do everything they 
could to unite the colonists against England. Union was 
encouraged by four important acts : 

/. By deciding that each colony should have one vote 
in the Congress. This was a favor to the small colonies. 

2. By a new declaration of rights, addresses to the 




'••i- I From a photograpb 

CARPENTERS' HALL 

The meeting place of the first Continental 
Congress in iyT4 



1 54 TJie Struggle for the Rights of Englishmen 

people of England and America, and by a petition to 
the king. 

J. By forming an American Association for the 
enforcement of non-importation. (§ i88). 

4. By arranging to keep the rest of the country in 
touch with Boston, where events were rapidly rushing 
to a crisis. 

Paul Revere brought the news that General Gage was 
trying to force the people of Massachusetts to submit to 
the changes in their government, and that they were 
arming to resist him. The Continental Congress 
resolved that " All America ought to support them in 
their opposition." This was a hint to the colonies to 
meet force with force. The hint was taken and military 
preparations rapidly followed. The people in every 
colony agreed to support the acts of Congress. 

203. Conciliation Fails in England (1775). When 
the king and his friends heard about the Congress they 
were more determined than ever to make America 
submit. On the other hand, the English friends of the 
colonies were also more active. 

William Pitt (Lord Chatham) (§191) introduced a 
motion for the removal of the British troops from Boston. 
He declared : " When your lordships look at the papers 
(§ 202, 2 and j); when you consider their decency, firm- 
ness, and wisdom, you cannot but respect their cause and 
wish to make it your own. For myself, I must declare — 
that for solidity of reasoning, force of sagacity, and wis- 
dom of conclusion — no nation or body of men can stand 
in preference to the general Congress at Philadelphia." 

Later, by the aid of Franklin, who was then in Eng- 
land, Chatham prepared a plan for restoring good feel- 
ing between England and her colonies, but Parliament 
voted it down. Edmund Burke also made a powerful 
plea for conciliation, but all in vain. Franklin, feeling 





w'N. ''»?^ Creek 



, iss^ 






THE COLONIES 

DURING 

THE REVOLUTION 

Showing the territory-covered 

by the various campaigns 

SctLl OF Miles 



26 60 76 100 



The Fighting Begins 



155 



that nothing more could be done to prevent a collision, 
hastened back to America. 



THE FIGHTING BEGINS 



204. The Rising in 1775 ; Lexington. General Gage 
at Boston had found it no easy task to enforce the king's 












A MAP OF BOSTON AND VICINITY 



Showing plans of military movements during lyyj and ryyb 

commands. The patriots had already set up an inde- 
pendent government in Massachusetts, organized com- 
panies of minutemen who had agreed to assemble at a 
minute's warning, and were gathering military stores at 
various points. 

A secret expedition to capture John Hancock and 
Samuel Adams, who were then at Lexington, and to 
destroy the stores at Concord, was planned by the British 
for April 19th. But the patriots were on the watch. The 
troops were hardly across the Charles River before a sig- 
nal light from the " Old North Church " sent Paul Revere 
and William Dawes on swift horses to alarm the country. 
What a tumult they aroused as the cry, " The regulars 
are coming!" awakened village and farm! What excite- 
ment in the homes as fathers and sons snatched their 



156 Tlie Strtiggle for the Rights of Englishmen 




PAUL REVERE WARNING THE COUNTRY 

OF THE APPROACH OF THE BRITISH 

REGULARS 



firelocks and ammunition bags and hastened to the 
parade ground ! Soon the clang of the alarm bell and 

the report of the signal gun 
helped to stir up the peo- 
ple. Then came the signal 
fires from the hilltops, to 
spread the warning. (See 
map, page 155.) 

When the advance guard 
of the British appeared at 
Lexington, fifty minute- 
\ men were there. " Dis- 
'^ perse, ye rebels ! " shouted 
Pitcairn, a British officer. 
They did not disperse, and 
a volley was poured into 
their ranks. Eight fell 
dead and others were wounded. The minutemen re- 
treated. As Adams and Hancock escaped across the 
fields together, the cracking of rifles reached their ears. 
" Oh, what a glorious morning is this !" said Adams. 

205. Concord Bridge. The British, finding the 
country up in arms, sent back for more troops and 
hastened to Concord to finish their work. But the 
minutemen were again too quick for them. Four hun- 
dred of them attacked the two hundred regulars guard- 
ing the " North Bridge " and drove them back into the 
town. Companies of militia were constantly arriving. 

The British started back toward Lexington and the 
Americans hastened to attack them. From behind 
bushes and trees, houses and stone walls, and from hill- 
tops, the " embattled farmers " poured in a deadly fire. 
The regulars retreated rapidly to Lexington. Here 
Percy's twelve hundred reenforcements with cannon 
formed a hollow square and received the exhausted 



TJic Fighting Begins 



157 



troops, who lay upon the ground with "their tongues 
hanging out like dogs after a chase." (For route of 
march, see map, page 155.) 

The retreat to Boston was even more dangerous. 
The regulars left their wounded and thought only of 




RETREAT OF THE BRITISH REGULARS TO BOSTON 

safety. The minutemen continued to harass them, and 
at one time threatened to cut off Percy's broken and 
disheartened army. The men were more glad that 
night to get under the guns of the British fleet than 
the troops from Concord had been to get into Percy's 
" hollow square." 

206. Effects of Lexington and Concord. It had, 
indeed, been a "glorious day." It had showed the 
world what it would not believe before — that American 
militia could attack and defeat veteran troops whose 
bravery had been proved on many a battlefield in 
Europe. The British loss was nearly three times as 
great as that of the Americans. The many companies 
of minutemen, sixteen thousand strong, that came, within 
a few days, from all New England, showed that this 
section was ready for war. 



158 The Struggle for the Rights of Englishmen 




r"J-T-^-" 



The response of the rest of the country was equally 
inspiring. As the news of Lexington and Concord sped 
over the country it was answered by 
vigorous preparations for war. The 
country was rising to fight. 

207. The Battle of Bunker Hill. 
For two months General Gage did 
not dare to show his head outside of 
Boston, although he now had about 
ten thousand regular troops. At last 
he planned to occupy Breed's Hill and 
Bunker Hill, two of the heights of 
Charlestown, but the Americans were 
too quick for him, for, on the night of 
June 1 6th, Colonel Prescott, w4th one 
thousand men, seized Breed's Hill and 
"began to throw up fortifications. (See 
byFrITon^V/&Ta Hiap, page 155.) Imagine the surprise 
monument ^f ^-^^ British next morning. They 

must drive the "rebels" from their new position over- 
looking Boston or be driven out themselves. But the 
Americans, reenforced by Putnam and Stark with three 
hundred men, were ready for the attack. 

Three thousand picked British veterans were chosen 
for the assault. As they marched up the hill in solid 
columns with bayonets gleaming, 
General Warren said to his minute- 
men : " Don't fire till you see the 
white of their eyes." At fifty yards 
the Americans took deadly aim. The 
British wavered, then broke and 
retreated in disorder. Rallied by 
their officers, they again came up the 
hill, and when within thirty yards 
again received the terrible volleys. 



A MINUTEMAN 




THE "PINE TREE FLAG" 
USED AT BUNKtR HILL 



TJic Fighting Begins 



159 



Once more they were compelled to retreat, leaving hun- 
dreds of their comrades dead or wounded on the hillside. 
With true English pluck, a third attack was made. 
After a few shots the Americans found their ammu- 
nition gone and were compelled to use their guns as 
clubs, for they had no bayonets. Stubbornly fighting, 
they retreated. 

The enemy's loss of eleven hundred and fifty-four in 
killed and wounded was surprisingly large. The Ameri- 
can loss of four hundred and 
forty-nine occurred mainly in 
the hand to hand fighting of the 
last attack. The greatest mis- 
fortune to the Americans was 
the death of the brave General 
Warren. 

The British won the day in 
the sense that they got posses- 
sion of Breed's Hill, and could 
now remain in Boston. But the 
Americans won a great moral 
victory, because they showed 
courage and skill not expected 
of raw recruits. General Greene 
said that he "wished we could 
sell them another hill at the 
same price." When Washington, on his way to take 
command of the army, heard how the minutemen fought, 
he exclaimed : " The liberties of the country are safe." 

208. The Second Continental Congress ; Washington 
Made Commander-in-Chief. Meanwhile a second Con- 
tinental Congress had met at Philadelphia. It elected 
John Hancock of Massachusetts President, and Benjamin 
Harrison, a Virginian, escorted him to the chair. John 
Adams, a Puritan, now urged Congress to make George 




A TYPE OF THE RAW MILITIAMAN 

Being the statue of Captain John 
Parker, by Kit son 



i6o TJie Struggle for the Rights of Englishmen 




DANIEL MORGAN ■ 

From a tniniature painted by John 

Trumbull, in the Art Gallery of 

Yale University 



Washington, a Cavalier, Com- 
mander-in-Chief of the Amer- 
ican armies. This was done 
and Washington took com- 
mand at Cambridge, July 3, 
1775- (See picture facing this 
page.) Troops were ordered 
from Pennsylvania and Mary- 
~^land to make the army be- 
sieging Boston more " conti- 
nental." Soon came the brave 
Daniel Morgan with his Vir- 
ginia riflemen in hunting 
shirts bearing Patrick Henry's 
famous words, " Liberty or 
death." Morgan saluted 

Washington and said, "From the right bank of the 

Potomac, General ! " Washington dismounted and with 

tears in his eyes went along the 

ranks shaking hands in turn with 

each man. They were his own 

neighbors ! 

209. The Americans Driven from 

Canada and the British from Boston. 

Ethan Allen, with his Green Moun- 
tain Boys, had already surprised 

Ticonderoga, and thus captured a 

large number of cannon. So bold 

did the Americans become that 

they even invaded Canada. General 

Montgomery captured Montreal and 

hastened to join Benedict Arnold 

and Daniel Morgan, who had reached 

Quebec by way of Maine in spite of 

terrible sufferings from hunger and 




ONE OF MORGAN'S VIKGINIA 
RIFLEMEN 




WASHINGTOX TAKING COMMAND OF THE TROOP.-. ... i. ..;litIDGE 

77/1? beginning of the struggle for independence 



The Fighting Begins 



i6i 



cold. The attack on Quebec failed, Montgomery was 
killed, and in the spring the army retreated from Canada. 

Early in 1776 both Washington and the people were 
anxious to strike a decisive blow at the enemy in Boston, 
General Knox had dragged to Boston many of the can- 
non captured at Ticonderoga. John Hancock, one of the 
richest citizens of Boston, urged Washington to burn the 
town to drive out the British. Washington, however, 
knew a better way. One night a furious cannonade from 
all along the American line held the attention of the 
British while two thousand Americans silently threw up 
breastworks on Dorchester Heights, overlooking both 
the town and the harbor of 
Boston. (See map, page 155.) 

General Howe, who now 
commanded the British, was 
not anxious to repeat Bunker 
Hill, and finding himself 
thus outgeneraled, decided to 
leave Boston. On March 17th 
the British sailed to Halifax, 
Nova Scotia, carrying with 
them one thousand Tories, who 
feared to face their angry 
neighbors. "Washington, by 
this bold stroke, not only 
freed New England from the 
enemy, but obtained large 
quantities of military supplies, and raised the hopes of 
the country. 

210. Victories in the Carolinas (1776). The British 
after their defeat in the North sent a fleet and an army 
to North Carolina, where the Scotch Highlanders were 
supporters of the king (§ 52). While these Tories were 
marchmg to join the fleet, Colonel Caswell defeated 




SIR WILLIAM HOWE 

From a print t?i Murray^s '■'■Im- 
partial History of the Present 
War" edition of 1780 



1 62 



The Struggle for tlie Rights of Man 



them at Moore's Creek. The British fleet then sailed for 
Charleston, South Carolina, where Colonel Moultrie, in 
his fort of palmetto logs, gave them a warm reception. 
The British loss was so great that the Carolinas were not 
troubled again for two years. (See map facing page 1 54.) 

THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN 



THE MOVEMENT FOR INDEPENDENCE 

211. How George HI. Drove the Americans Toward 
Independence. In the beginning of their trouble with 
England, the Americans did not desire independence. 
As early as the New England Union, however (§ 78), and 
again at the time of the Stamp Act, English officers in 
America had accused the colonists 
of secretly aiming at a separation 
from England. But leaders like John 
Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and Ben- 
1^ jamin Franklin stoutly denied this 
&P charge, and declared that they were 
striving only for their rights as 
Englishmen. Yet they saw very 
plainly that if George III. kept on 
he would drive them into breaking 
away from England. 

Although war had begun, the 
Second Continental Congress sent 
Richard Penn, a Tory, to England 
with another petition for conciliation. 
George III. gave a decided answer to 
this last appeal: (/) He refused to 
receive the petition ; {2) declared the 
Americans rebels, and ( j) resolved to hire foreign troops 
to subdue them. These troops came chiefly from the 
small German province of Hesse, and so were called 




A HESSIAN TROOPER 



TJie Movement for Independence 163 

Hessians. George III. was compelled to hire them 
because his British subjects refused to enlist. 

There was now no more hope for reconciliation, and 
the Americans felt that if they must fight, it would be 
better to fight for the "Rights of Man"; that is, for 
independence. 

212. Public Opinion Begins to Favor Independence. 
The king's answers and the burdens and sufferings from 
actual war began to make the feeling against the Eng- 
lish government very bitter. As early as May, 1775, the 
people of Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, declared 
that Americans owed no obedience to the king, and that 
the colonial assemblies and the Congress should rule 
them. A powerful pamphlet called Common Sense was 
written by Thomas Paine, and read by thousands. It 
argued for independence : " The period of debate is 
closed and arms must decide the conflict. The appeal 
was the choice of the king. ... If you say you can 
pass the violations over, then I ask, hath your house 
been burnt? Have you lost a parent or child by their 
hands ? 'T is not in the power of England or of Europe 
to conquer America." 

The people were now debating earnestly the question 
of separation from England. In the spring of 1776 many 
of the colonial assemblies instructed their delegates in 
Congress to favor a declaration of independence. On 
May 14, 1776, Virginia, in a great convention, instructed 
her delegates to propose that Congress declare the United 
Colonies free and independent states. 

213. The Declaration of Independence. Early in 
June, 1776, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia, obeying the 
voice of his colony, introduced in Congress his famous 
resolution " that these United Colonies are, and of right 
ought to be, free and independent states." Again Massa- 
chusetts stood by Virginia, and John Adams spoke in 



164 



The Struggle for the Rights of Jllan 



favor of Lee's motion. Some of the colonies were not 
yet ready, so the question was postponed. 

But a committee consisting of Thomas Jefferson, 
John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and 
Robert R. Livingston was appointed to draw up a Decla- 
ration of Independence. Jefferson was the author, and 
produced an immortal document containing a statement 
of the Rights of Man, a list of the causes of separation, 
and the declaration that all political connection between 
the colonies and " the state of Great Britain is, and ought 
to be, totally dissolved, . . . and for the support of 
this declaration, wdth a firm reliance on the protection of 
Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other 
our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor ."(Page liv.) 




: . I '! , : .1 HALL, I'illl Alitl.PHIA 

/« this building assembled (he Coiitiiienlal Congress, Washington was chosen Com- 
mander-in-Chief, and the Declaration of Independence was adopted 

On July 4th the " Liberty Bell " rang out the decision 
of Congress to the people of Philadelphia. Celebra- 
tions were held everyw^here in honor of the event. The 
reading of the Declaration to Washington's army was 



Campaigns for Possession of the Middle States 165 




From a photograph 



THE 

"LIBERTY 

BELL" 



received with cheers and the firing of cannon. The 
Declaration was published in England and translated 
into European languages. 

Independence was now in the 
minds and hearts of a majority of 
the American people, but it yet 
remained to establish it by force 
of arms. The struggle for the 
Rights of Englishmen had given 
place to the struggle for the Rights 
of Man. The people resolved to 
be American citizens instead of 
British subjects. The United Col- 
<Dnies became the United States. 

214. The Tories and Their Treatment. Many 
Americans opposed independence at first who after- 
ward gave it hearty support. But from the beginning 
of the trouble some believed the king's measures to be 
right, and thought it wrong to oppose them. Now that 
war had come, and the question of independence was 
before the people, the king's supporters, or the Loyalists, 
as they liked to be called, spoke out boldly against 
separation from England. Many of them joined the 
British army. This division among the Americans was 
a great misfortune, because it not only made the war 
longer, but led to bitter feeling and many cruelties on 
both sides. In many neighborhoods there were murders 
and house-burnings. Hundreds of educated and wealthy 
Tory families were forced to leave their homes and flee 
to Nova Scotia and Canada. 



THE CAMPAIGNS FOR POSSESSION OF THE MIDDLE STATES 

215. The Military Objects of the British. The early 
American victories opened England's eyes to the size of 
her task. She decided to conquer the Middle States and 



i66 



The Struggle for the Rights of Man 




thus cut off New England from the South, and separate 
the "ringleaders," Massachusetts and Virginia. The 
easiest way to carry out this plan was to get possession 
of New York harbor and the line of 
the Hudson and Lake Champlain to 
Canada. 

2i6. Battle of Long Island; Retreat 
Up the Hudson, Washington guessed 
the British plan and hastened with his 
army from Boston to New York. Fort 
Washington and Fort Lee were built 
on opposite sides of the Hudson 
River above New York, and 
Brooklyn Heights were forti- y^"^^ 
fied. Meanwhile Admiral At^'^ 
Howe had come over with 
reenforcements, which x\ ^ij>-i 
raised his brother's pJ./'Ci^'^'s 



THE MILITARY MOVEMENTS IN 
THE MIDDLE COLONIES, 1776-1778 



X^ '<V l>ubbl i , 




T/:e dotted lines show 
IVas/iing'ton's tine of 
march during the 
retreat from New 
York ana the cam- 
paign ending with 
the bat tie of /Prince- 
ton 



army to thirty thousand men. Washington had but 
eighteen thousand troops, mostly fresh from their farms 
and untrained for war. Nevertheless, he fought a battle 



Campaigns for Possession of the Middle States 1 67 

on Long Island with General Howe, but was defeated 
(August, 1776). Washington's position on Brooklyn 
Heights now seemed hopeless, but one night the Marble- 
head fishermen among his soldiers rowed his army 
safely over to New York, (See map, page 166.) 

Although Howe was thus outwitted a second time, 
he succeeded in driving Washington out of the city, but 
failed to get in his rear, as he tried to do. The Amer- 
icans checked the enemy in a fight at White Plains and 
took up a strong position near by. Washington sent 
Captain Nathan Hale to find out Howe's plans, but Hale 
was captured and sentenced to be hanged as a spy. As he 
vStood ready for the signal he said : " I only regret that I 
have but one life to lose for my country." General 
Howe turned back, stormed Fort Washington, and took 
possession of Fort Lee. Washington hurried across the 
Hudson into New Jersey to stand between the British 
and Philadelphia. 

217. Washington's Retreat and Lee's Capture. 
Washington now ordered General Charles Lee, who was 
still on the east side of the Hudson with seven thousand 
troops, to join him. But Lee, a blustering adventurer 
who wanted to be commander-in-chief, refused, and 
Washington began "the retreat through the Jerseys" 
without him. Greatly outnumbered by the British, Wash- 
ington fell back rapidly from place to place till he reached 
Trenton, on the Delaware. Here his little army was 
forced to cross the river into Pennsylvania. (See map, 
page 166.) 

In the meantime General Lee and his troops crossed 
into northern New Jersey. The British captured him, 
but his soldiers reached Washington in safety. The loss 
of Lee discouraged the people still more because they 
believed he was a great general. The situation was dark 
and gloomy. Congress, alarmed at the advance of the 



1 68 



The Struggle for the Rights of Man 



British, removed from Philadelphia to Baltimore. Dis- 
couraged by the long retreat and the frequent defeats, 
thousands of the militia returned home. The people 
began to give up hope, and many took the oath to obey 
the king. They did not yet know Washington. 

218. The Victory at Trenton (1776). Lord Corn- 
wallis, leading Howe's advance, had followed hard upon 
the heels of Washington to Trenton. The British could 
not cross the Delaware, for Washington had destroyed all 
the boats within reach, Cornwallis stationed his forces 
at different places along the river and then returned to 
New York to share in the Christmas / festivities. 



r'WHimi!!! 







WASHINGTON AND HIS TROOPS CROSSING THE DELAWARE 

Frotn (he painting by E. Leutze in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City 

Washington quickly saw his opportunity. It was 
Christmas night. The Hessian soldiers stationed in 
Trenton had been feasting and drinking all day, as was 
their custom. The weather was bitter cold, and snow 
and sleet were falling. "vSurely," thought the half-tipsy 
Hessian sentinels, "it is of no use to watch. There can 
be no danger such a night as this." 



Campaigns for Possession of the Middle States 169 




A HESSIAN SENTINEL 

Standing g-uard at his 
post 



But if they had listened they 
might have heard the tramp of 
marching feet and the rumble of 
wheels. Washington and his men 
had crossed the Delaware amid the 
floating ice, and were pressing for- 
ward to Trenton. Their feet left 
bloodstains on the snow and their 
ragged clothes could not keep out 
the cold. Two poor fellows were 
frozen to death. But the little army 
never faltered. It was the last chance 
for liberty. 

At daybreak the attack began. 

The sleepy Hessians were aroused 

from their beds, but it was too late. 

A few volleys, a wild charge, and all 

One thousand 



was over 

of the enemy surrendered 

with all their cannon and 

supplies. It was one of 

Washington's most famous 

victories. (See map, page 

166.) 

219. Robert Morris 
Helps Washington Win 
the Battle of Princeton. 
Although a victory had 
been won, the very soldiers 
who had won it were about 
to return to their homes. 
The time of their enlist- 
ment had ended, and what 
was worse, they had re- 
ceived no pay to send 




ROBERT MORRIS 

From a painting by Gilbert Stuart^ 
used throug/i kind permission of the 
owner y C F. M. Stark, Esq., of Win- 
chester, Massachusetts 



I70 



TJic Struggle for tJie Rights of JSIaii 



home to their families. Washington was anxious to 
pay the soldiers, bitt there was no money. He wrote 
to Robert Morris, a wealthy patriot of Philadelphia. 
Morris went from door to door asking for money to pay 
Washington's men. He raised a large sum, and the 
army was ready to fight again. 

The British had believed the war was almost over, but 
Cornwallis now hastened back to recover lost ground. 
When he reached Trenton, Washington's army was 
guarding the south side of the Assanpink Creek so well 
that Cornwallis concluded to wait till morning before 
"bagging the old fox." That night the British could 
see the brightly burning campfires of the Americans and 
plainly hear them at work on their entrenchments. But 
in the morning the camp was empty. Washington, with 
the main body of his troops, had stolen around the 

British army toward Prince- 
ton, w^here he struck their 
reenforcements at sunrise 
(January 3, 1777). He led his 
men into the thickest of the 
fight and soon had the British 
on the run. The booming of 
cannon at Princeton was the 
first news Cornwallis had that 
the Americans had left their 
camp. (See map, page 171.) 

220. Results of the Hol- 
iday Campaign, Washington 
drew off to the heights around 
Morristown for winter quar- 
ters. The British had only 
three towns left in New 
Jersey, and were annoyed all winter by the militia. 
The people had now regained confidence and were 




JEAN PAUL LAFAYETTE 

Front a painting by Samuel F. B. 

MorfC in the Mayor's room, Neiv 

York City Hall 



Cmnpaigns for Possession of the Middle States 1 7 1 



determined to punish the British for stealing their horses 
and robbing and burning their homes. 

Washington's work had raised him and the American 
cause in the opinion of foreign nations. Lafayette, with 
Baron De Kalb and other officers, now came from France 
and gave their services. Pulaski and Kosciusko, brave 
Polish soldiers, had already joined the patriot army. 
One lesson learned was that Washington needed more 
authority. Congress, therefore, made him almost dicta- 
tor for six months, and gave him power to raise troops 
to serve during the war. 

221. The Campaign for the Capital ; Battles of Bran- 
dywine and Germantown (1777). General Howe longed 
to enjoy the 



glory of enter- 
ing the "rebel 
capital," as the 
British called 
Philadelphia. 
Early in June 
he moved from 
his quarters in 
New Jersey, 
but Washing- 
ton suddenly 
blocked his line 
of march to Phil- 
adelphia. Howe 
could not get 




THE CAMPAIGNS AROUND PHILADELPHIA 



around him, and would not risk a battle. He finally 
decided to reach Philadelphia by sea, and sailed with 
eighteen thousand men to the head of Chesapeake Bay. 
(See map above.) 

Washington, with eleven thousand troops, met him 
at Chadds Ford on Brandy wine Creek- The Americans 



1 72 TJie Struggle for the Rights of Man 

were beaten by a flank attack, thonj^h the enemy's loss 
was the greater. Washington gradually fell back and 
Howe occupied Philadelphia. 

While some of the British forces were absent, Wash- 
ington planned a bold night attack upon Germantown, 
near Philadelphia. But in a heavy fog one division of 
the Americans attacked another by mistake, and the 
British, who at first retreated, rallied and drove them 
back. 

Had Washington been victorious, independence might 
soon have been won, for even then the fate of another 
British army hung in the balance. But although Wash- 
ington had not defeated Howe, he had prevented him 
from aiding the new British army which was coming 
down from Canada. 

222. Burgoyne's Invasion. George HI. and his min- 
isters could not give up the idea of breaking the power 
of the Americans by vSeizing the lakes and rivers which 
connect Canada and New York (§215). A new campaign 
had been planned consisting of three parts : 

/. A fine army under General Burgoyne was to 
move up Lake Champlain and down the Hudson. 

2. A smaller body of Canadians and Indians under 
Colonel St. Leger was to go up the St. Lawrence and 
Lake Ontario to Oswego, capture Fort Stanwix, near 
where Rome now is, and join Burgoyne on the Hudson. 

J. General Howe was to march up the Hudson, cap- 
ture the American forts, and join Burgoyne and St. 
Leger. 

But General Howe thought he could capture Phila- 
delphia first, and thus failed to perform his part. 

About the time Howe began his march toward Phila- 
delphia (June, 1777), General Burgoyne started from 
Canada with eight thousand splendidly equipped sol- 
diers and the finest train of artillery yet seen in 



Campaigns for Possession of the Middle States 173 




America. He captured the powerful fortress of Ticon- 
deroga. When George III. heard the news, he hurried 
to the queen, exclaiming: "I have beat them ! I have 
beat all the Americans !" Flushed by this triumph, Bur- 
goyne pressed on with his army to the head of Lake 
George, but in the next twenty days he made only 
twenty miles. General Schuyler, with his Americans, 
had been busy in that northern wilderness felling trees 
across the roads, obstructing the fords, and breaking 
down the bridges. 

223. A Part Not on the Program ; The Battle of 
Bennington. By the 
time Burgoyne reached 
Fort Edward he was 
compelled to forage for 
food and for a fresh sup- 
ply of horses. The 
hardy sons of New Eng- 
land were answering the 
call to meet the invader, 
and were bringing to- 
gether at Bennington, 
Vermont, just the sup- 
plies needed by Bur- 
goyne. He sent one 
thousand Hessians to 
capture the stores and 
encourage the Tories of 
that region. 

But instead of the 
Tories the Hessians met 
the brave General Stark 
with one thousand mili- 
tia, and Seth Warner with five hundred more. They 
were only farmers and backwoodsmen, but their rifles 



'llooncteroB 







BURGOYNE'S CAMPAIGN 

Showifig- St. Leber's route 



174 



The Struggle for the Rights of Man 



never missed their aim. After several hours of hard 
fighting, the Americans killed or captured almost the 
entire British force. The Americans were aroused, not 
only by this brilliant victory, but also by the stories of 
the inhuman deeds of Burgoyne's Indians. Reinforce- 
ments came to Schuyler in great numbers. Burgoyne 
felt discouraged, for he had lost a small army and ob- 
tained neither Tories, horses, nor food. 

224. General Herkimer and the Relief of Fort Stan- 
wix. vSt. Leger, aided by the Indians and Tories under 
Sir John Johnson, reached Fort Stanwix. But that vet- 
eran soldier, General Herkimer, called together the rifle- 
men of Tryon County and met the Indians and Tories 
near Oriskany. Herkimer and his men were drawn into 
an ambush in the midst of a swamp, where was fought, 
hand to hand, one of the bloodiest battles of the war. 




EVOLUTION OF THE AMERICAN FLAG 

The one on the left is the Union Jack ,• in the center, the /lag used at the siege of Boston 
in /yyb : on the right, the flag adopted by Congress in 1777. ( See footnote below) 

Just as the enemy began to retreat, the men in the fort 
rushed out, defeated Sir John Johnson, and captured his 
camp. On their return to the fort they ran up the 
British flags and then hoisted above them the first 
American flag ever raised. ^ St. Leger continued the 

' This first flag, a rude affair, was made out of a white shirt, a blue 
jacket, and stripes from a red petticoat. Congress had lately adopted 
the " stars and stripes " as our national flag. Before this, flags of several 
kinds had been used by the army. 



Campaigns for Possession of the Middle States 175 

siege, but on the approach of American reenforcement.s 
led by Arnold, he fled back to Canada. 

225. Saratoga and the Surrender of Burgoyne (1777). 
The disasters at Bennington and Fort Stanwix, and the 
failure of Howe to move up the Hudson, placed General 




ARNOLD'S CHARGE AT BEMIS HEIGHTS 



Burgoyne in a dangerous position. The New England 
militia under Lincoln cut him off from Canada, and noth- 
ing was left for him but hard fighting. 

Just as victory for the Americans was in sight, Con- 
gress sent General Gates to take Schuyler's place. The 
Americans had occupied Bemis Heights, a short distance 
south of Saratoga, which had been well fortified by Kos- 
ciusko. Here and at Stillwater, on the Hudson, Bur- 
goyne was defeated in two desperate battles, by the hard 
fighting of Arnold and Morgan. Arnold's heroism in 
the early stages of the struggle stands in sharp con- 
trast to his later treachery. Gates unjustly received the 
credit for these victories of the Americans. Falling back 
to Saratoga, Burgoyne was soon completely surrounded, 
and, with no hope of aid from General Howe (§221) 



176 



The Struggle for the Rights of Man 



or Clinton, surrendered his entire army to General 
Gates (October 17, 1777). 

226. Results of the Campaign ; The Turning Point 
in the War. The total loss to the British during this 
campaign was not far from ten thousand men, besides 
the enormous cost of such an expedition. The rapidity 
with which twenty thousand Americans responded to the 
call to meet the invasion was full of meaning. 

The country praised Gates for what it thought he had 
done, and blamed Washington for not capturing Howe. 
At the same time, England blamed Howe for not cap- 
turing Washington. But the greatest effect of this vic- 
tory was upon France. 

227. Franklin's Work in France. Even before the 

war broke out, France took 
great interest in our quarrel 
with England. Shortly after 
the Declaration of Independ- 
ence, Benjamin Franklin had 
been sent to that country. He 
was already known in Europe 

'- by his scientific discoveries, 
and soon became very popu- 
lar in France because of his 
homely wisdom. The edu- 
cated people admired him for 
his learning, the fashionable 
court people for his quick wit 
BENJAMIN FRANKLIN ^ud good mauncrs, while the 

From the original portrait bv Joseph ° . , , . 

Stffrein Duplessis. ui the Museum of COmmOU peoulc praiSCd him 

htne Arts, Boston. 7 his portrait ^ '■ '■ 

was painted for the Abbe Verri,7vas for his simplc, dcmOCratic 

once owned b\ Jefferson, from him ^ 

passed to Mr. Joseph Coolidge, and wayS. WllCUeVer lie ap- 

from him it zvas purchased m iSjS by -^ ^ 

the Boston Athenceum pcarcd ou the strccts with 

his "old brown coat," which he had resolved to wear till 
independence was won, a crowd always gathered. His 




Campaigns for Possession of the Middle States i 'j'j 

portrait was hung in shop windows to attract attention, 
and " Franklin fashions" became the rage. 

At first the king of France would permit only money 
and war material to be sent secretly to America. After 
the surrender of Burgoyne, however, he believed that 
independence would be w^on, and was easily persuaded 
by Franklin to make a treaty (1778) by which he promised 
to send soldiers, ships, and money in return for our 
pledge not to make peace with England till she had 
acknowledged our independence. This meant war 
between France and England. Spain and Holland also 
made war on England. They had already been loaning 
us money to carry on the struggle for independence. 

228. Change of Feeling in England. The news of 
Burgoyne's surrender and of the alliance between Amer- 
ica and France produced a powerful effect on England. 
Lord Chatham and Edmund Burke had already violently 
denounced the use of Indians by the English. Some of 
the Whigs now favored ending the war by granting 
independence, and even the king saw the need of trying 
conciliation. Parliament voted to repeal its oppressive 
laws and surrender all right to tax America; in short, 
to grant everything except independence itself. But it 
was too late. America had suffered too much and had 
won too many victories. Besides, she was now bound to 
France by a pledge of honor. 

229. The Conway Cabal; Valley Forge (1777-1778). 
From the first, fault was found with Washington's cau- 
tious policy. He retreated too much, some said. Others 
thought that Gates was an abler general. General Con- 
way, who had been serving in France, was disappointed 
because Washington did not give him higher rank. 
Others were jealous of Washington. The discontented 
persons put their heads together to ruin his reputation 
with Congress and the people. They miserably failed, 

13 



178 



The Struggle for the Rights of Man 




and Washington stood higher than before. This plot 
has been named the " Conway Cabal." 

While Howe was feast- 
ing in Philadelphia, and 
the people of the country 
were still rejoicing over 
"the brilliant work at Sara- 
toga, Washington and his 
ragged army were entering 
on the long hard winter at 
Valley Forge, twenty miles 
northwest of Philadelphia. 
On the bleak hillsides of 
that half-mountainous re- 
gion, poorly clad, poorly 
fed, and housed in log huts, 
the American army, con- 
stantly reduced by disease 
and death, suffered dreadfully. Washington wrote to 
Congress: "Two thousand eight hundred 
and ninety-eight men (are) unfit for duty 
because they are barefoot and otherwise 
naked. It is a much easier thing to (blame 
the army) in a comfortable room . . . 
than to occupy a cold, bleak hill, and sleep 
under frost and snow." 

230. How Baron Steuben Helped Wash- 
ington. But thanks to the skill of a noble 
Prussian officer. Baron Steuben, there came 
forth from that winter of gloom and suffer- 
ing a new and well-trained army. From 
the first, Washington had had a hard task 
to drill his men, for they were mostly •i-^iSt^^.t:^^'^-' 
militia serving for a short time only and '^7^r^7/ 

A TRAINED CON* 

did not like the strict rules of military life. tinental 



ON GUARD AT VALLEY FORGE 




Campaigns for Possession of the Middle States 179 



They were the best marksmen in the world, as the 
British learned on many a battlefield, but they liked 
the Indian method of fight- 
ing, each man for himself. 
Washington finally suc- 
ceeded in enlisting many 
regiments to serve during 
the entire war. Such regi- 
ments were called "Conti- 
nentals." Steuben, fresh 
from the army of Frederick 
the Great, taught the Con- 
tinentals the fine maneu- 
vers of the Prussian soldiers 
and the skillful use of the 
bayonet. We shall see 
how well they learned their 
lesson. 

231. British Leave Phil- 
adelphia; Battle of Mon- 
mouth (1778). The news 
that a French fleet was coming led General Clinton, 
who had succeeded Howe, to withdraw from Philadel- 
phia and hasten to New York. By rapid marches, 
Washington forced the British to give battle at Mon- 
mouth in New Jersey. (See map, page 171.) He planned 
the attack so well that only the cowardice, or treachery, 
of General Charles Lee (§217) prevented a deadly blow. 
Just as Lee was surrounding a wing of the British army 
with six thousand of Steuben's trained troops, he ordered 
a hasty retreat. Lafayette sent for Washington, who 
sternly ordered Lee to the rear. The troops formed 
again, charged the British with fixed bayonets, and drove 
them back. But under cover of night the enemy with- 
drew, leaving their wounded upon the battlefield. 




FRIEDRICH V.'ILHELM, BARON STEUBEN 

From a paintmg by Ralph Earle, 

owned by Mrs. F. B. Austin., New 

York City 



i8o 



The Struggle for the Rights of Man 



General Clinton took up a position in New York, and 
Washington occupied his old camp at White Plains. 
The campaign for the conquest of the Middle States had 
ended where it began, but with the tables turned. Then 
the British were chasing the Americans out of New York; 
now the Americans were chasing the British into New 
York. For the next tw^o years each commander watched 
the other, and. when possible sent reenforcements to 
armies in other portions of the country. 

WINNING OUR FIRST WESTERN BOUNDARY 

232. Wyoming and Cherry Valley Massacres (1778). 
While Washington was watching Clinton in New York 
the war ^vent on in many other places. The Tories of 
western New York were burning to be revenged for 

being driven from their homes 
(§214). A combined force of 
Tories and Indians fell upon 
the defenseless inhabitants of 
the beautiful Wyoming Valley, 
in northeastern Pennsylvania, 
and burned, tortured, and mur- 
dered to their hearts' content. 
Most of the men of this region 
were serving under Washing- 
ton. The inhuman enemy was 
commanded by a Tory, Colonel 
John Butler. In the same year 
a similar massacre was com- 
mitted in Cherry Valley, New 
DANIEL BOONE Yoi'k, by thc Tories and Indi- 

Froin a portrait made in iSiq i ., ,, ^ -\ ^ • r 

ivhen Boone ivas Sj yrars old, aus uiidcr tlic Celebrated chici, 

painted by Chester Harding, _ i t-« j^ 

and no7i> in the />ossession of JOSCph Brailt. 

the Massachusetts Historical , ... 

Society, Boston, Massachusetts T. hcSC awful CVClltS Stirrcd 

the country, and the next year Washington sent General 
Sullivan with five thousand men to punish thc enemy. 




Winning Our First Western Boundary 



i8i 



Where Elmira now vStands he completely overthrew both 
Butler and Brant and then turned uf)on the Indians, 
laying waste their farms and homes. During the cold 
winter starvation and disease followed, and the power 
of the hostile portion of the Six Nations was completely 
broken. 

233. Kentucky and Tennessee in the Revolution. 
In 1775 Daniel Boone, with hardy pioneers from North 
Carolina, had settled Boonesboro, Kentucky. When the 
news from Lexington and Concord crossed the moun- 
tains, it found a hearty answer from these bold fron- 
tiersmen. They organized a militia, sent a delegate to 
Congress, and named one 
of their towns Lexington. 
They were soon at war with 
the Indians who were help- 
ing the British. 

North Carolina fur- 
nished most of the early 
pioneers who settled Ten- 
nessee. James Robertson 
led the way to founding a 
settlement on the Watauga 
River, and later, with John 
Sevier, defeated the Chero- 
kee Indians at that point. 

234. George Rogers 
Clark Makes the Missis- 
sippi River our Western 
Boundary. Partly to pro- 
tect these young settlements, but mainly to overthrow 
the power of the British in the " Northwest," George 
Rogers Clark, a young Virginia scout, planned and carried 
out one of the most important expeditions of the war. 
With the approval of Governor Patrick Henry he secretly 




GEORGE ROGERS CLARK 

From a painting on wood by John Wesley 

JarviSi now in the State Library at Ricn- 

niond, Virginia 



l82 



The Struggle for the Rights of Man 



collected about one hundred and fifty men and a few 
families. They descended the Ohio from Pittsburg to the 
Falls of the Ohio. Here the families settled, but Clark 
and his men floated down to the Tennessee, and then 
marched across the country, took possession of the French 
towns in southern Illinois, made friends with the Span- 
iards at St. Louis, and prepared for their great task, the 
capture of Vincennes, on the Wabash, the most impor- 
tant British post in the Ohio Valley. 

The British general, Hamilton, at Detroit, marched 




THE GEORGE ROGERS CLARK EXPEDITION 

The result of this expedition was to inake the Mississippi River the western 
boundary at the close of the Revolutionary War 

five hundred men to the relief of Vincennes. Clark 
and his men made their way across country, often wading 
for miles up to their arms in water. He completely 
surprised the British general and frightened him into 
surrendering. The power of the British in the West 



Irregular Warfare on Land and Sea 183 

was thus broken, and the entire country to the Mississippi 
River was in our poSvSes.sion when the war closed. 

IRREGULAR WARFARE ON UANDAND SEA 

235. Plundering Expeditions; Stony Point and 
Paulus Hook (1779). The failure of their two great 
campaigns, and our treaty with France, made the Brit- 
ish desperate. Not able to accomplish great things, 
they turned their attention to robbing and burning towns 
in New England, New Jersey, and Virginia. 

Washington had already strongly fortified West Point, 
but to make the upper Hudson more secure, the Ameri- 
cans built forts on opposite sides of the river at Stony 
and Verplanck's points. Before the fort at Stony Point 
was finished, the British captured it. It must be recap- 
tured, and " Mad Anthony " Wayne was the man for the 
deed. Twelve hundred picked men, trained by Steuben, 
with empty guns and fixed bayonets, charged up the 
steep sides of Stony Point at midnight (July 15, 1779) 
and that powerful fortress was ours again. 

Paulus Hook, now a part of Jersey City, is a narrow 
neck extending out into the Hudson. The British had 
fortified this point strongly and sent frequent foraging 
expeditions among the Jersey farmers, Henry Lee, 
" Light Horse Harry," gallantly led a small force of 
chosen men and captured the garrison. 

236. Arnold's Treason. Benedict Arnold had proved 
himself one of the best and bravest officers of the 
American army. He won the complete confidence of 
Washington, but Congress was too short-sighted to give 
him the position he wanted. Finally, Washington put 
him in command of Philadelphia. Here he lived very 
expensively and married a charming Tory lady. 

But charges of misconduct were brought against him, 
and Arnold was reprimanded. Eager for revenge, he 
requested and received the command of West Point, 



i84 



Tlie Struggle for the Rights of Man 



the key to the Iliulson. lie then planned to betray 
the plaee into British hands. The plot failed only by 
the capture of Major Andrd, the British officer sent to 
arrange for the surrender. Arnold himself escaped, 
but Andre was hanged as a spy. Later Arnold was 
rewarded by being made a general in the English army, 
but his last days were full of bitterness and sorrow. 

237. Weakness of the American Navy. The navy of 
Great Britain was the most powerful in the world. That 
America had no war vessels when the v^^ar began was 
a great disadvantage. England held ports like New 
York against large armies, and transported her troops to 
distant points without fighting a battle. If defeated in 
one place, she went by sea to another. If supplies were 
not to be had in America, they could be had in Europe. 
From the beginning of the war. Congress felt the 
need of a navy. In 1775 thirteen fast-sailing war vessels 
were ordered built, but before these were ready eight 
refitted merchant vessels sailed from Philadelphia to 
prey on British commerce in the West Indies. Congress 

issued to private persons " let- 
ters of marque and reprisal," 
which gave them the right to 
fit out ships, to attack the 
enemy's vessels, and to do 
whatever regular men-of-war 
might do. Such vessels were 
called privateers. Without 
these letters their crews would 
have been treated as pirates. 
The privateers did good work, 
and to some extent took the place of a navy. Captain 
John Barry distinguished himself for bravery, for which 
afterward (1794) he was made ranking commander in 
the navy. 




THE "RATTLESNAKE FLAG " 

First flag carried by privateers 



Irregular Warfare on Lafid and Sea 



185 



238. Paul Jones and His Great Sea Fight (1779). 
But the greatest American triumph on the sea came 
through the skill and cour- 
age of Paul Jones. During 
1778, in his little ship, the 
" Ranger," he spread terror 
among the seaports of the 
British Isles themselves. 
Now he dashed in and 
burnt shipping; now he 
pounced upon some vessel 
carrying the English flag, 
and now was off to France 
out of harm's way. 

In 1779, by the aid of 
Franklin, Jones obtained a 
fleet of five vessels in 
France and sailed around 
the north of Scotland and 
down the eastern coast to 
Flamborough Head. Here 
his flagship, the "Bon Homme Richard,"i met an Eng- 
lish frigate, the "Serapis." They closed in deadly con- 
flict, which raged far into the night. Paul Jones lashed 
the two vessels together, and no escape was possible for 
either. Some of his heaviest guns exploded, and his 
main deck was covered with dead and dying. The 
British vessel had lost nearly half her m^en. She caught 
fire and her brave crew left their guns to battle with the 
flames. The "Bon Homme Richard" was not only on 
fire, but was filling with water. Still Jones fought on 
until the British captain surrendered. Thus, all at 
once, the "haughty mistress of the seas" had been 




r / 

JOHN PAUL JONES 

Fr07n a painting by Charles Wilson Peale 
in Independence Hall, Philadelphia 



'The " Good Man Richard," so named as a compliment to Franklin, 
whose Poor Richard's Almanac was famous for its quaint sayings. 



1 86 TJic Struggle for the Rights of Man 

humbled, and the American flag was raised in the esti- 
mation of the world. 

OVERRUNNING THE FAR SOUTH 

239. A Change of Plan ; Georgia Overrun ; The 
French and Americans Defeated at Savannah. The 

British had all along believed that the far South con- 
tained so many Loyalists that an army was all that was 
needed to encourage them to rise. Accordingly it was 
determined to strike a blow in Georgia. In the fall of 
1 778 British troops from Florida and New York defeated 
the Americans and captured Savannah and other towns 
in that colony. For the time, English authority was 
reestablished. (See map, page 1 89.) 

General Lincoln had been sent to command the patriot 
forces in the South and was soon joined by Count Pu- 
laski (§ 220). In the summer of 1779 Count d'Estaing's 
French fleet appeared off the coast, and joined with 
Lincoln in an attack on Savannah. After three weeks 
of regular siege, an assault upon the fort resulted in the 
loss of over one thousand French and Americans killed 
and wounded. Count Pulaski was among the killed. 
The French sailed away and Savannah was left in the 
pOvSsession of the English. 

240. Capture of Charleston (1780) ; A New Kind of 
Fighting. These battles were only preparatory, for 
Generals Clinton and Cornwallis came with an army 
from New York for a great attack upon Charleston. 
They did not try to pass Fort Moultrie this time, but 
marched overland from Savannah. General Lincoln was 
forced to surrender Charleston, thus losing three thou- 
sand Continentals, a damaging blow. South Carolina as 
well as Georgia was now apparently lost, and hundreds 
took the oath of allegiance to George III. General Clin- 
ton left Cornwallis to suppress what opposition remained. 

But Marion, Sumter, Pickens, and Williams now found 



Overrunning the Far South 



187 



a way of fighting which was even more puzzling to the 
British than the tactics of the minutemen. With only 
small bands under them, often less than a hundred, they 
kept the enemy's forces in the Carolinas in constant 
terror. Armed with home-made swords, mounted on 
the fleetest horses, hiding in dense swamps or mountain 
fastnesses, they seldom slept two nights in the same 
camp. They would destroy a Tory camp at night and 
by dawn be in some distant hiding-place ; again they 
would sweep around the main British army, cutting off 




MARION SURPRISING A BRITISH CAMP 



stragglers or charging pellmell into their camp, and be 
away before the British could recover from their sur- 
prise. In this way these bold warriors kept alive the 
spirit of resistance until Washington sent relief. 

241. General Gates Defeated Near Camden (1780). 
Washington wished Greene to carry reenforcements 
to the South and take command there, but Congress sent 
Gates (§225). He hastened to Hillsboro, North Caro- 
lina, where General De Kalb was collecting the Amer- 
ican forces. By a series of blunders. Gates gave every 



1 88 



The Struggle for the Rights of Man 



advantage to Cornwallis, who quickly brought his forces 
together at Camden, South Carolina. Near here the two 
armies met. Gates and his militia fled at the first fire, 
but the noble De Kalb with his brave Maryland and Del- 
aware Continentals held their ground and forced back 




DE KALB AND THE MARYLAND AND DELAWARE CONTINENTALS AT CAMDEN 

the enemy by one of the bayonet charges which Steuben 
had introduced and drilled them upon during the terri- 
ble winter at Valley Forge. But overwhelmed, and with 
their inspiring leader mortally wounded, the Continen- 
tals also were at last driven from the field. The army 
of Gates was almost ruined, only a few of the Continen- 
tals remaining to aid Morgan in his defeat of Tarleton, 
This was probably the greatest defeat inflicted upon the 
Americans during the war. A second time the Carolinas 
seemed lost. 

WINNING BACK THE SOUTH 

242, The Tide Turns at King's Mountain. Corn- 
wallis forthwith started for the conquest of the "Old 
North vState." He headed his anny for Charlotte, where 
the Mecklenburg County patriots made it so warm for 
him that he declared that he had run into a real "hornets' 
nest" (§212). 



Winjting Back the South 



ti59 







CAMPAIGNS IN THE SOUTH DURING THE REVOLUTION 

The territory covered by the campaigns of Greene, Marion, Rawdon, Gates, and 

Cornwallis. 2'lie dotted lines jyyS and 17S0 show the routes taken by British 

troops under Clinton from New York 

Cornwallis had sent Major Ferguson, with twelve 
hundred British troops, up into the mountains, near the 
border line of the Carolinas, to encourage the Tories. 
News of this expedition went far and wide, and soon 
the frontiersmen, clad in hunting shirts and coonskin 
caps, and armed with long rifles, were closing in upon 



190 



TJie Struggle for the Rights of Man 



Ferguson. He took a position on the top of King's Moun. 
tain and defied the backwoodsmen. Up three sides of 
the mountain swarmed one thousand picked riflemen. 
Ferguson's men charged with fixed bayonets, but each 
rifleman took to a tree or boulder, and bayonets could 
do nothing in the face of a deadly fire from three direc- 
tions. The British retreated, and the Americans, mov- 
ing from tree to tree, closed in around them. The entire 
force of the enemy surrendered. The frontiersmen had 
but twenty-eight men killed. The invasion of North 
Carolina was suddenly checked, but the backwoodsmen 
were not regular soldiers, and scattered as quickly as 
they had come together. 

243. General Greene to the Rescue ; Battle of the 

Cowpens(i78i). Washington 
now had his way and sent 
General Greene to measure 
swords with Cornwallis. With 
him was " Light Horse Harry" 
Lee and his famous regiment 
of cavalry. But Daniel Mor- 
gan was already on the 
ground with the remnant of 
De Kalb's Continentals. 
Greene sent him with Colonel 
Washington, another bold 
cavalry officer, to encourage 
the backwoodsmen who had 
done such fine work at King's 
Mountain. Cornwallis or- 
dered his ablest officer, Tarle- 
ton, to beat Morgan, who took 
post at Cowpens, South Caro- 
lina. Morgan, however, by skillful generalship, not 
only defeated Tarleton but captured most of his army. 




NATHANAEL GREENE 
Prom a pain (i tiff by Charles iVtlson 
Feale^ otice owned by Airs. Wtlliain 
Brenton Greene, Jr., Princeton, Neiu 
Jersey, and now in Independence Hall, 
Philadelphia 



Wmning Back the South 191 

Tarleton himself was wounded in a hand-to-hand sword 
contest with Colonel Washington. 

244. The Long Retreat ; Battle of Guilford Court 
House (1781). Cornwallis was now furious. He was 
determined to strike a blow, but Morgan withdrew too 
quickly for him. Greene also, having too few troops 
to fight, began his famous retreat across North Carolina 
into Virginia. Cornwallis did all in his power to over- 
take the Americans; he destroyed his heavy baggage 
and made forced marches, but all in vain Heavy rains 
filled the rivers to overflowing. Greene carried his 
boats on wheels and crossed without delays, but Corn- 
wallis had to wait till the streams became passable. 
When the British had chased Greene into Virginia, 
Cornwallis declared in a proclamation to the people that 
he had conquered North Carolina. He spoke too soon. 
General Greene, as quickly as he could gather enough 
troops, crossed back into North Carolina and gave battle 
to the British near Guilford Court House. Cornwallis 
held the field, but lost almost a third of his fighting 
force. Greene was strong enough to fight again next day, 
but his opponent would not risk another battle. Instead 
of fighting, Cornwallis retreated to Wilmington, and then 
marched northward into Virginia. (See map, page 189.) 

245. Greene Recovers South Carolina (1781). Greene 
immediately marched to the relief of South Carolina. 
At Hobkirk's Hill, near Camden, he was attacked by 
Lord Rawdon. The Americans were thrown into con- 
fusion and the British won the field. But Lord Raw- 
don's force was crippled, and his communication with 
Charleston being cut, he beat a hasty retreat. 

While Greene was giving his main army a much 
needed rest, Lee, Marion, and Sumter captured all but 
one of the remaining posts outside Charleston, and even 
drove the British out of Augusta, Georgia. 



192 



TJic Struggle for the Rig/its of Man 



Early in the fall Greene again met the enemy at 
Eutaw Springs. The battle Avas, in effect, an American 
victory, for the next day the British retreated. The 
work of Greene was now practically done. He had 
accomplished what both Lincoln and Gates had failed 
to do, and proved himself a general second only to 
Washington. Charleston and Savannah alone now 
remained in English hands, while only a year before 
both Georgia and South Carolina seemed to be com- 
pletely conquered by them. 

246. Washington's Strategy. Corn- 
wallis had marched into Virginia to 
join the traitor, Benedict Arnold, 
who was being watched by a small 
American force under 
Lafayette. When Lafay- 
ette was reenforccd by 
Wayne and Steuben, 
Cornwallis made for 
Yorktown, to be within 
reach of the British fleet. 




THE WAR IN VtRGIN'lA 

The dotted lines show Washington's route from Neiv York and the route taken by 
Cornwallis, which ended in the tatter' s defeat at Yorkto'vn 



Wmninsr Back the South 



193 



j/^ 




Washington had been planning to attack the British in 
New York with the aid of an army under Count Rocham- 
beau, which had been sent by the French king. But 
when he heard the news from 
Virginia, and learned that a 
powerful French fleet was 
coming to the Chesapeake, he 
quickly formed a new plan. 
After making Clinton think 
he intended to attack New 
York, he slipped away south- 
ward and reached Philadel- 
phia with his army before 
anybody knew where he was 
going. How happy were Con- 
gress and the people when 
they heard that he was has- 
tening to Yorktown! The 
citizens of Philadelphia dec- 
orated their houses with the 
stars and stripes, while cheering men crowded the streets 
and happy women filled the windows and threw flowers 
over the ragged Continentals and the finely dressed 
French soldiers. " Long live Washington ! He has gone 
to catch Cornwallis in his mouse trap ! " cried the people. 

247. Yorktown the Crowning Victory (1781). From 
the head of Chesapeake Bay the French fleet carried the 
army to Yorktown. Escape by sea or land was now 
impossible for Cornwallis. For a month the French 
and Americans pressed the siege. (See map, page 195.) 
The cannon from the ships and from the army knocked 
Cornwallis's fortifications to pieces. Finally the outer 
works were carried by assault, and starvation or surren- 
der faced the British. Cornwallis accepted the latter, 
and on the 17th of October raised the white flag. 

14 



CHARLES, EARL CORNWALLIS 

From a drawing^ made by W. H. 

Broiun in ijgi. This portrait first 

appeared in '■'•The Senator,^' en- 

graved by IV. Grainger 



194 



The Struggle for the Rights of Maii, 



The American and French armies drew up in oppo- 
site lines more than a mile in length. At the head of 
one was Washington, while at the head of the other 
stood Count Rochambeau. The British soldiers marched 
between the lines with slow and solemn steps, their 
colors cased and drums beating the old British march, 
"The World Turned Upside Down." When opposite 
Washington, a British general lifted his hat and said 
that Cornwallis was not well enough to come in person 








CARKVING THE OUTER WORKS AT YORKTOWN 

and deliver his sword. General Lincoln, who had been 
compelled to give up his sword at Charleston, now, by 
Washington's orders, received the British sword, and 
led the defeated army to an open field where it laid 
down its arms. (See picture facing page 194.) 

Washington's courier reached Philadelphia at mid- 
night. "All is well and Cornwallis is taken !" shouted 
the old watchman. The Liberty Bell rang a glad alarm. 



Winning Back the Sotitk 



195 



J> 



Yoiktown 



s\ 







SIEGE OF YORKTOWN 

From an engraved chart made by a 
French engineer 



Soon the streets were 
filled with happy crowds 
shouting and shaking 
hands over the good 
news. 

248. Results of York- 
town. A wave of rejoic- 
ing swept over America. 
The long day of doubt 
was gone and independ- 
ence was near. Paris was 
illuminated and in Eng- 
land the king's enemies 
gave proof of their joy 
over the results. The 
victory at Yorktown 
meant not only the independence of America but also 
the overthrow of the king's arbitrary power in England. 
When the news first arrived, Lord North threw up his 
hands, excitedly repeating, " O God ! It's all over ! " Only 
stubborn George III. was still for war, and threatened 
to give up his throne rather than grant independence 
to America. It was a bitter pill for the king when, 
after North's resignation, Parliament compelled him to 
call back to power those very Whigs who were friends 
of America (§191). 

249. The Treaty of Peace (1783). Congress named 
Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay com- 
missioners to make a treaty with Great Britain. The 
treaty was arranged in Paris. France and Spain were 
both concerned, since they also had been at war with 
England. Spain now set up a claim to the country 
between the mountains and the Mississippi, but the 
settlers of Kentucky and Tennessee already held this 
region (§ 233). Jay and Adams thought France, too, 



I9<3 Tin- Struggle for the Rights of Man 

was looking out only for herself, so the American 
commissioners made a separate treaty with England. 
This treaty gave us independence. The Mississippi 
was agreed upon as our western lim.it, while the north- 
ern boundary line was about the same as now, as far 
west as the Lake of the Woods. Florida, which was 
given to Spain, formed our southern boundary. (See 
map facing this page.) 

250. Washington Bids His Comrades Farewell. 
When the British army evacuated New York (Novem- 
ber 25, 1783) Washington took possession. He met his 
assembled generals for the last time. The parting of 
the men from the commander whom they had followed 
through the long, bitter struggle was deeply touching. 
Addressing them, Washington said : " With heart full 
of love and gratitude, I now take leave of you. I most 
devoutly wish that your latter days may be as pros- 
perous and happy as your former ones have been glo- 
rious and honorable. I cannot come to each of you to 
take my leave, but shall be obliged if each one of you 
will come and take me by the hand." In turn, he shook 
each officer affectionately by the hand and embraced 
him. Not a word was spoken. All then silently fol- 
lowed him to Whitehall Ferry. Having entered the 
waiting barge, he turned to the company, and, waving 
his hat, bade them a silent adieu. 

251. Washington Resigns and Retires to Mount 
Vernon. Washington journeyed to Annapolis, where 
Congress was in session, to resign his office as com- 
mander-in-chief of the American army. The governor 
and other state officers of Maryland, with certain mili- 
tary officers and ladies and gentlemen of high stand- 
ing, were present by invitation. The galleries were 
crowded. As was customary, the members of Congress 
sat with their hats on, to show their sovereign authority. 




THE UNITED STATES 

at the Close of the 
REVOLUTIONARY WAR 

SCALE OF Miles 



LimffittuU Weet 80 from Sreenwiah 



Winning Back the South 197 

The visitors all stood with uncovered heads during the 
ceremony. 

Washington arose and addressed the president of the 
Congress: "The great events on which my resigna- 
tion depended, having at length taken place, I have now 
the honor ... to surrender into their (Congress's) 
hands the trust committed to me, and to claim the indul- 
gence of retiring from the service of my country. Hav- 
ing now finished the work assigned me, I retire, . . , 
bidding an affectionate farewell to this august body. 
. . . I here offer my commission and take my leave 
of all the employments of public life." 




^^_ «*. ^ From a photograph 

MOUNT VERNON, THE HOME OF WASHINGTON 

Refusing to accept any reward for his long years of 
hard service, Washington hastened to Mount Vernon, 
his stately home which still stands on the banks of the 
Potomac not far from the city of Washington, to enjoy 
once more with his family and friends the delights of 
the Christmas time. He was now indeed, as everybody 
felt, 

"The first, the last, the best, 
The Cincinnatus^ of the West." 



'Cincinnatus was a great Roman general who, after he had won 
his victories, left the army and returned to his farm. 



tpS The Struggle for a Fcrvianent Union 

THE STRUGGLE FOR A PERMANENT UNION 

THE COUNTRY TRIES STATE SOVEREIGNTY 

252. Formation of the Confederation (1776-1781). 

The Revolution was a time for deep thinking as well as 
for quick action. Men not only asked how to win inde- 
pendence, but how to make permanent the blessings 
obtained by the long struggle (i 765-1 783). Even before 
the Declaration, it was seen that the colonies acting 
singly never could win independence. 

On the day Congress appointed the committee to 
write a Declaration of Independence it appointed another 
to draw up Articles of Confederation. Although a kind 
of union already existed among the colonies, it was much 
easier to separate from England than to form a strong 
union. Congress hesitated to adopt the Articles of Con- 
federation, but debated them again and again, and did 
not pass them till 1777. Men had little time to think of 
anything but war. Besides, some feared even a weak 
government over the states. They were just now trying 
to escape from one tyrant, and had no wish to make 
another. 

All of the states agreed to the Articles of Confedera- 
tion except Maryland. She alone held out against them 
until 1 78 1, when the larger states, like Virginia, promised 
to put their western lands under the control of Congress. 
Most of the war, therefore, was carried on under the 
old Continental Congress, which governed simply by 
common consent. 

253. Nature of the New Government, The most 
striking fact about the new government was its weak- 
ness. It had only such powers as the states grudgingly 
gave it. They were old and it was new. The people 
had not yet learned to fear the power of the states; it 



Working for a Stronger Government 199 

was so near to them. They had not yet learned to love 
national power ; it seemed so far away. 

According to the Articles, Congress was a body to 
advise the states. If Washington needed more troops, 
Congress could only recommend the states to raise them. 
If the troops were not sent, Washington had to get on as 
best he could. If Congress wanted money, it could tax 
no one, but must recommend the legislatures to raise the 
amount. If they refused, Congress must either do with- 
out the money or borrow it. The small number of troops 
in the American army and the terrible sufferings at 
Valley Forge were not due to a lack of men, or to a want 
of food and clothing in the country, but to a lack of power 
in Congress. This is why men like Washington, Frank- 
lin, and particularly the generous Robert Morris, had to 
come forward with their private means to relieve the dis- 
tress of the army. 

The Confederation had no president to execute its 
laws; the governors of the states were the only real 
executive officers in America. Neither were there 
national courts to settle national disputes. Each state 
had but one vote in Congress, although it might have 
several delegates. This made Delaware and Rhode 
Island equal in authority to Pennsylvania and Virginia. 
Nine states had to vote for important measures before 
they became laws. If, for example, only ten states were 
represented at one time, and two states voted against a 
law, it was defeated. As was the custom in England, 
the American Congress sat behind closed doors, and the 
people could not criticise its debates. 

WORKING FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT 

254. How the Confederation Helped to Cure Itself. 

Although the government under the Confederation was 
very weak, the people had to be taught by bitter expe- 
rience before they would risk a stronger one. In the 



200 The Striiggle for a Permanent Union 

following ways the Confederation aided in curing its 
own defects : 

/. By not being able to pay its debts. During the hard 
days of the war, Congress got but little money from the 
states. France and Holland loaned us large sums. But 
this was soon gone, and Congress issued " paper money," 
that is, gave its promise to pay at some future time 
what it owed, when it hoped to have plenty of gold and 
| 1 GcmXlTientai -CaTrttniOj lxd 




PAPER MONEY ISSUED BY CONGRESS DURING THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 

silver. But the people feared that neither Congress nor 
the states would ever be able to redeem this paper money. 
It fell in value till a man might have a trunk full and yet 
be poor. 

As the war drew to a close the old soldiers felt that 
Congress ought to give them at least back pay for their 
services. Washington pleaded their cause in vain. Some 
of them became so dissatisfied that they proposed to 
make Washington king. He, of course, was insulted by 
the offer. 

But matters grew worse, and the army, while at New- 
burg, talked of turning its arms against Congress, but 




Working for a Strojiger Government 201 

Washington prevented an outbreak. The situation is 
well told in the words of young Alexander Hamilton; an 
officer on Washington's staff: "We begin Vv 

to hate the country for its neglect of us ; the 
country begins to hate us for our oppression (r^^ \ V 
of them. Congress have long been jealous ^^'"^ ^ ^ 
of us; we have lost all confidence in them." 
2. By being unable to protect commerce. 
England closed her West India ports against 'if 
our merchants and placed a high duty on 
American articles sent to England, but Con- 
gress could not strike back by taxing 
English goods. The result was a great de- ^ shilling 
dine in shipbuilding and commerce after ^during"heRev- 
the war ended. oiunonary war 

Neither could Congress make laws to regulate the 
trade between the states. Many of the states taxed the 
goods brought in from neighboring states. New York 
taxed the farmers of Connecticut and New Jersey, while 
they in turn "boycotted" New York City. This condi- 
tion of business not only made people dissatisfied with 
I he Confederation, but also made them long for a 
stronger union. 

J. By being too weak to preserve order. Congress could 
riot even protect itself from insult. Near the close of 
the war several hundred unpaid soldiers marched into 
Philadelphia and threatened to use force against Con- 
gress. Congress, with no one to defend it, was driven 
•over to Princeton, New Jersey. 

On account of business distress in all parts of the 
ijountry many persons found it impossible to pay their 
taxes and debts. Many soldiers had spent years in war 
to the utter neglect of their families and trades. They 
were now poor, but debts and taxes had to be paid. So 
the sheriff often came and sold their property. 



202 The Struggle for a Pcrinanent Union 

In Massachusetts several hundred people rose in 
rebellion, under the leadership of Daniel Shays, to break 
up the courts, and to compel the state to give them 
relief. During the winter of 1786-87 the state troops 
were called out under General Lincoln, and Shays and 
his men were dispersed or captured. Congress was too 
weak to do anything, and people were frightened into 
the belief that the Confederation was about to end in 
anarchy. Many prominent men who before had opposed 
a firmer government now demanded one. 

255. What Washington Did for a Stronger Govern- 
ment. From the beginning a few men saw that the 
Confederation was doomed to fail. 

During the war Washington again and again urged 
the states to give Congress more power. Just before 
retiring to private life he sent a "Circular Letter" to 
the governors, declaring that it was the duty of every 
true patriot to insist "that there should be lodged some- 
where a supreme power to regulate and govern the gen- 
eral concerns of the confederated republic ; that whatever 
measures have a tendency to dissolve the union ought to 
be considered hostile to the liberty and independence of 
America." 

For the next three or four years Washington was 
constantly writing and speaking in favor of a firmer 
union. To his friend. Governor Harrison, he wrote 
(1784): "An extension of federal powers would make 
us one of the most wealthy, happy, and powerful nations 
(on) the globe. I predict the worst consequences from a 
half-starving, limping government, tottering at every 
step." To John Jay (1786) : " I do not conceive that we 
can exist long as a nation without a power which will 
pervade the whole Union. ... I am told that even 
respectable (persons) speak of a (monarchy) without 
horror." 



Working for a Stronger Government 



203 



256. Influence of Hamilton, Madison, and Others. By 

his pen Alexander Hamilton stood next to Washington 
in educating the people to accept a stronger national 
government. In 1780 he 
wrote a famous letter on the 
defects of the government 
and the remedy for them. 
He also published a series of 
papers to influence public 
opinion, and declared that we 
must have a vigorous govern- 
ment " if we mean to succeed 
in the contest and be happy 
hereafter." 

Among the foremost men 
in the battle for a better gov- 
ernment was also James 
Madison of Virginia. In Con- 
gress, in his own state legis- 
lature, and in private, he was 
untiring in his efforts till suc- 
cess crowned his labor. 

Many other men of great influence joined in the call 
for a new government, but the majority were slow to 
move in the matter. Two other influences were working 
in the same direction, namely, the beginning of a national 
land system and the Ordinance of 1787. 

257. Beginning of a National Land System. We 
have seen how the pioneers in Kentucky and Tennessee, 
and the little army of George Rogers Clark, won the 
Mississippi as our western boundary (§§ 233-234). Ac- 
cording to their old charters, several states claimed the 
vast unsettled region thus gained. But after much dis- 
cussion they patriotically surrendered their claims to 
Congress on two conditions : 




ALEXANDER HAMILTON 

Frojn the portrait painted by John 
Trumbull, now in the Museum of 
Fine Arts, Boston, Massachusetts 



204 ^Z*^^' Struggle for a Permanent Union 

1. That the land be "disposed of for the common 
benefit of the United States." 

2. That this region be "formed into distinct repub- 
lican states." 

This was the first territory the United States owned, 
and in 1785 Congress opened up parts of it to settlers by- 
surveying and marking it off into sections, townships, 
and ranges. The possession of western lands by the 
Confederation helped to hold it together till stronger 
bonds of union could be forged. The sale of these lands 
seemed about the only means of paying the war debt. 

Connecticut kept a tract of land running along the 
southern shore of Lake Erie, called the "Western Re- 
serve." Virginia still retained Kentucky and made two 
reservations north of the Ohio^ — one between the Miami 
and Scioto rivers, to pay her Revolutionary soldiers, and 
another in what is now southern Indiana, called "Clark's 
Grant," as a reward for the men of Clark's expedition. 

258. The Ordinance of the Northwest Territory 
(1787). Thomas Jefferson a slave holder, introduced into 
Congress a plan for the government of the territory just 
given over to the United States. According to this plan 
slavery was to be prohibited in this region after 1800. 
The vote in Congress defeated it, but it is proof of the 
breadth of Jefferson's mind and may be regarded as the 
forerunner of the Ordinance of 1787. The Northwest 
Territory included what is now Indiana, Illinois, Michi- 
gan, and Wisconsin. Tliis region was the gift of Virginia 
to the nation. Congress passed the Ordinance for its gov- 
ernment largely because old soldiers from New England 
wanted to settle here. It is a famous document because — 

J. It laid the foundation for the government of our 
territories. 

2. It prohibited negro slavery in the Northwest 
Territory. 



Working for a Stronger Government 



205 




THE NORTHWEST TERRITORY 

Opened by act of Congress under the '■^Ordinance of lySj " 

J. It bestowed religious freedom on all the settlers 
in this region, 

^. It provided that schools and "the means of educa- 
tion shall forever be encouraged." 

The making of this "ordinance" was one of the wisest 
and one of the last acts of the Congress of the Confeder- 
ation. It gave the whole country a common interest in 
the Northwest Territory. 



2o6 The Struggle for a Permanent Union 

259. Steps Leading to the Constitutional Conven^ 
tion ; Virginia and Maryland Meet (1786). Leading 
men in Virginia and Maryland thought it wiser to agree 
than to quarrel over the trade on Chesapeake Bay and 
the Potomac. Accordingly delegates met at Alexandria 
to arrange trade matters. They were in Washington's 
own town and honored him with a visit at Mount Ver- 
non, to gain his advice. They saw, however, that other 
states trading with Virginia and Maryland would be 
affected by any regulations they might make. Hence 
it was decided to invite all the states to send dele- 
gates to a great " trade convention " to be held at 
Annapolis. 

260. The Annapolis Meeting (1786). Only five 
states sent delegates to the Annapolis meeting. Not a 
man came from New England. The leading men were 
Alexaiider Hamilton, James Madison, and John Dick- 
inson (§ 202). The convention did not do much, but it 
saw clearly that even if all the states should agree to 
rules for regulating trade, there was no central authority 
to enforce them. So they called for a great national 
convention to be held in Philadelphia for the purpose of 
revising the Articles of Confederation. 

Some of the states and even Congress hesitated to 
favor such a meeting. Friends of Washington urged him 
not to become a delegate ; they were afraid this meeting 
too, would fail, and they did not wish the great name of 
Washington connected with a failure. 

But while people were hesitating, Shays' rebellion 
broke in all its fury upon Massachusetts and threatened 
to spread into other states (§ 254). Men saw that the 
crisis had come, and that they must choose between 
anarchy and a stronger central government. Congress 
now openly favored a convention, and all the states 
except Rhode Island sent delegates. 



The Constitutional Convention 207 

THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION 

261. Leading Men of the Convention (1787). From 
May till September this convention sat behind closed 
doors in Independence Hall, Philadelphia. Fifty-five 
of the best men the states could send took part in the 
great task of framing our Constitution. They were 
well fitted for the work. Twenty-nine were college 
graduates ; three had been in the Stamp Act Congress ; 
more in the Congress of 1774; several were signers of 
the Declaration of Independence, and many others had 
won distinction in the struggle with England. 

Washington, the most trusted man in America, was 
made president of the convention. Franklin was its 
oldest member and Hamilton its youngest. Madison 
was afterward called the "Father of the Constitution," 
because of his great part in making and defending it. 
He was the -main author of the "Virginia Plan" of a 
constitution which the convention decided to make the 
basis of its work. Other noted men were John Dick- 
inson of Delaware, William Paterson of New Jersey, 
Roger Sherman of Connecticut, Robert and Gouverneur 
Morris and James Wilson of Pennsylvania, the Pinck- 
neys and John Rutledge of South Carolina, and Elbridge 
Gerry of Massachusetts. 

Some very able Americans were not there. Jeffer- 
son was serving as Minister to France and John Adams 
as Minister to England, while John Hancock, Samuel 
Adams, Patrick Henry, and Richard Henry Lee did not 
favor such a convention. 

262. Difficulties in the Convention ; The "Connecti- 
cut Compromise." The convention soon resolved to 
make a new Constitution instead of amending the old 
one. This was a bold step, because the states had told 
them only to amend the Articles of Confederation. 
Hence, some of the delegates feared that the states 



2o8 



Tlie Struggle for a Permanent Union 



would reject their work, but the majority believed with 
Washington that " if to please the people, we offer what 
we ourselves disapprove, how can we afterward defend 
our work ? " 

The small states preferred the old government be- 
cause it was proposed that the states should no longer 
have an equal vote in the new Congress, but should vote 
according to population. They, therefore, favored the 

"New Jersey Plan," which only 
revised the Articles in some 
points. Debates grew warm and 
feeling ran high, until the dele- 
gates from Connecticut proposed 
that each state have the same 
number of Senators, but that the 
number in the lower House vary 
according to population. This 
plan, known as the " Connecticut 
Compromise," was accepted by 
both parties, and the small states 
became ardent supporters of the 
new Constitution. It was de- 
cided that Representatives 

From a portrait painted by Tlwmas i i j r , i i 

Huks, after Ralt,li Bar.'e, now in sllOUld SCrVC f Or tWO yCarS aud bC 
Independence Halt. FliUadelphia i , t -i xi i i? j.i 

elected by the people of the 
states, while Senators should serve for six years, and be 
elected by the legislatures. (Constitution, Article I., 
Sees. 2, 3; Amendments, Article XVII.; §598.) 

263. Conflicts Between the Free States and the 
Slave States. Another troublesome question before 
the convention was : Shall slaves as well as free men 
be counted in dividing the number of Representatives 
and the amount of direct taxes among the states? The 
slave states said yes for Representatives, but no foi 
taxes. The free states took exactly the opposite position. 




ROGER SHERMAN 



TJie Constitutional Convention 



209 



Both sides stood firm, and men feared that no Consti- 
tution could be made unless this dispute was settled. 
James Madison proposed that three-fifths of the slaves 
be counted in making up the number of Representa- 
tives and in dividing the direct taxes among the states. 
This compromise was accepted. 

The majority of the delegates wanted the new govern- 
ment to control commerce, but did not agree as to how 
far the control should go. 
Some of the states, south- 
ern as well as northern, 
were opposed to bringing 
slaves from Africa, but 
Georgia and South Carolina '/ 
declared that they needed / 
to import slaves. The farm- ' 
ing states said that Con- 
gress ought to pass trade '^ 
laws only by a two-thirds ^^ 
majority. It was finally 
agreed that the foreign 
slave trade might go on for 
twenty years and that Con- 
gress might pass trade laws 
by an ordinary majority, 
but should never place a ^ gouverneur morris 

T '■ From a drawing by Qiieneaey, after a 

tax on exports.' painting by Chretien. Printed by de Joky s 

'^ ' in Darien's Letters of Gouverneur Mor- 

264. Making the Presi- ''"'' '^'^^". York, and used by special per- 

^ *^ tnission of Charles Scribner s Sons 

dent. The convention de- 
cided that the new government should have a strong 
executive, with power to carry out the laws and manage 
the affairs of the nation, just as the governors did in the 
states. Many different ways of electing the President 
were proposed. A few wished him to serve for life, more 
were in favor of a single term of seven years, but they 

1 Constitution, Article I., Sec. 2, 

2 Constitution, Article I., Sec. o. 

15 




2IO The Struggle for a Permanent Union 

decided to elect him for four years by electors chosen as 
the states might decide. Each elector was to vote for 
two men. The one who received the highest number 
of votes became President ; the one having the next 
highest became Vice-President. 

265. Establishing National Courts. If the new 
government needed an executive, it also needed a sys- 
tem of national courts and national judges. It was 
decided that the judges should be appointed to office 
by the President and should serve during good behavior. 
The national courts try cases between people of differ- 
ent states, between foreigners and citizens, and decide 
whether laws passed by the states or by Congress are 
according to the Constitution or not. (See Constitution, 
Article III.) 

266. How Congress, the President, and the Judges 
Work Together. If a law is wanted, some Represent- 
ative or Senator may introduce a bill into Congress 
describing the law. This bill may be debated and 
changed, but if a majority vote to pass it, then it is sent 
to the other House, where it may be again debated. If 
this House also passes the bill, it goes to the President 
for his signature. If he signs it, then the " bill " becomes 
a "law." If he "vetoes" it, he must send it back to 
Congress with his reasons for not signing. If two-thirds 
of both Houses still vote for the bill, it becomes a law, 
and the President must carry it out just as he would any 
other law. (Constitution, Article I., Sec. 7.) 

If, however, any citizen feels that the law does him 
harm, he may bring the question before a national court 
and the judges will decide whether the law is " constitu- 
tional " or not ; that is, whether the law agrees with the 

Constitution. If it does, the law stands, but if it does 

1 
not, then the law is dead. 

267. How the Constitution May be Amended. The 

'Constitution. Article III.. Si-cs. i and z. 



The People Endorse the Constitution 2il 

framers of the Constitution were wise enough to see 
that as the country grew, and as people learned from 
experience, they might wish to change the Constitution. 
They provided that such changes might be made in two 
ways: 

/. Proposed amendments may be introduced into 
Congress as any other bill. If they pass both Houses 
by a two-thirds vote, then the amendments are sent by 
Congress to the state legislatures or to state conven- 
tions. If they are approved by three-fourths of the 
states, the changes become a part of the Constitution. 

2. If two-thirds of the legislatures request it, Con- 
gress must call a national convention, which may propose 
amendments. Such amendments are then sent to the 
states and voted on as before. This method has never 
been used. (Constitution, Article V.) 

THE PEOPLE ENDORSE THE CONSTITUTION 

268. Why Some People Opposed the Constitution. 

When the Constitution was finished a few members of the 
convention refused to sign it, but the great majority did 
so and sent it to Congress to be submitted to the different 
states for acceptance or rejection. The people did not 
know just what kind of government the convention had 
made. Some feared that so much power had been given 
to the nation that the power of the states would be broken. 
Others feared that the President would become a king. 
Some opposed the new Constitution because it had no 
" Bill of Rights " ; that is, no part which promised to 
protect the life, liberty, and property of the people. 
Others argued that it would be better to let well enough 
alone, fearing that under the new government "the rich 
would become richer and the poor poorer." 

269. How the Constitution was Ratified. When the 
time came to elect delegates to conventions to accept or 
reject the Constitution there was great excitement and 



212 



The Struggle for a Permanent Union 



much discussion both for and against it. Many writers 
prepared arguments for the newspapers, and published 
pamphlets. A series of articles called The Federalist is 
still considered one of the greatest works ever published 
on the subject of government. It was written mainly 
by Hamilton and Madison, and was an explanation and 
defense of the Constitution. 

When the conventions met in the great states of 
Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Virginia, and New York, 
exciting contests occurred. With such men as Elbridge 
Gerry, Samuel Adams, John Hancock, Richard Henry 
Lee, Patrick Henry, George Mason, James Monroe, and 
George Clinton, either opposed to the new government 
or not enthusiastic in its support, the friends of the 

Constitution had no easy 
task before them. Several 
conventions of the smaller 
states ratified the Constitu- 
tion by unanimous vote, but 
in some of the larger states 
it was carried only by the 
promise to favor amend- 
ments. North Carolina and 
Rhode Island did not ratify 
until after the Constitution 
went into operation. In the 
first Congress following the 
adoption of the Constitution 
ten amendments, sometimes 
called the Bill of Rights, 
were added. (See Constitu- 
tion, Amendments I.-X.) 
270. Rejoicing Over the 
Victory (1788). When nine states had ratified the Consti- 
tution, the people knew the victory was won, and the 




JAMES WILSON 



From the portrait painted by lames 

' idependence Hall^. 

adelphia 



Peale. now in Independence Hall, Fhil- 



The People Endorse the Constitution 



213 



friends of the "New Roof," as the Constitution was called, 
showed their joy. Cannon boomed, bonfires blazed, and 
processions filled the 
streets. 

But nowhere were 
the people happier 
over the result than in 
Philadelphia. The 
good news that the 
" Old Dominion " had 
ratified the Constitu- 
tion made the people 
of Philadelphia re- 
solve to celebrate the 
Fourth of July in 
grand style. Salutes 
were fired at sunrise. 
The bells in the city 
rang their noisy wel- 
come as five thousand 
people gathered in celebrating the ratification of the con- 

^. £ .-i J STITUTION IN new YORK CITY 

line tor the parade. The^-Shipof state" wasdrawnon floats through 

"Every trade, every the crowded streets 

business, every occupation of life was represented." 
When the procession ended, James Wilson, who had been 
one of the great defenders of the Constitution, delivered 
an oration. The rejoicing continued far into the night. 

This was a fitting celebration of the greatest event of 
the American Revolution by a city which had witnessed 
the meeting of the Congress of 1774, the Declaration of 
Independence, and the Constitutional Convention. 

While the people are rejoicing over the new Constitu- 
tion and are electing Washington to be their first Presi- 
dent, we may take a closer look at the condition of the 
country after its long period of agitation and revolution. 




€l)e ^crioti of l^ational oBrotDtf) 

THE RULE OF THE FEDERALIST PARTY 

OUR COUNTRY WHEN WASHINGTON BECAME PRESIDENT 

271. Population and Its Distribution. While the 
Revolution was going on, the population of the United 
States increased over a million, and when Washington 
became President it numbered nearly three million nine 
hundred thousand. The state of New York now has 
twice as large a population as the whole country had 
then. The vast majority in 1790 still lived east of the 
Allegheny Mountains and near the sea. Philadelphia, 
then the largest American city, had but forty-two thou- 
sand people, while New York, the next in size, contained 
only thirty-three thousand. By the same census Boston 
had a population of eighteen thousand, Charleston six- 
teen thousand, and Baltimore thirteen thousand. 

272. The West. In the main, the region from the 
Allegheny Mountains to the Mississippi River was 
covered by vast unbroken forests where wild animals 
and Indians yet lived. The prairies, those great tree- 
less plains, were covered with waving grass, and were 
most extensive in the region northwest of the Ohio. 
Their fertile soil was yet untouched, and only here and 
there were cabins and log forts, the outposts of the 
United States. 

This region was the "West" of that time. People 
were attracted to it by stories of its beauty, of the rich- 
ness of its soil, and of the romantic adventures which 
awaited the settler. But the means of travel and com- 
munication were so slow that Thomas Jefferson declared 
it would take a thousand years to fill up the region to 

C214) 



Our Country When Washington Became President 215 



the Mississippi River. Increasing- numbers of pack- 
horses and emigrant wagons, however, were already 
following a common 
route from Philadel- 
phia over the moun- 







tains to Pittsburgh. 
Another road, com- 
ing from Virginia 
and Maryland, aided bls^-^r^j^^TT"!? 
in making Pittsburgh *^ 

the most thriving -^^^isS 

and bustling town 
west of the moun- .^,^°>*^ 

tninc; From thic; emigrants moving west for settlement 

point the pioneers, with their families and household 
goods, and often with their cattle, embarked on flatboats 
and floated down the beautiful Ohio River to find new 
homes in what was soon to be the state of Ohio. 
"^ 273. Industry and Commerce. The old Confedera- 
tion, as we saw, was unable to protect the commerce of 
this country from the unfair laws of other countries, 
and to prevent one state from injuring the trade of 
another. As a result, American trade, both domestic 
and foreign, was not at this time very flourishing. Little 
or no cotton was exported. 

But in spite of these unfavorable conditions. New 
England ship-owners loaded their vessels with furs and 
fish, or took on cargoes of grain and flour from the Mid- 
dle States, or hogsheads of tobacco from Maryland and 
Virginia, or rice and indigo from Carolina and Georgia, 
and sailed away for the ports of Europe. 

The one occupation still common to all sections was 
agriculture. On account of differences in soil and sea- 
sons, it paid least in New England, better in the Mid- 
dle States, and best in the South. The ways of farming 



2l6 



TJtc Rule of tJic Federalist Party 



and manufacturing were still much like those of colo- 
nial times (§ 144). But even now in manufacturing a 

great change was coming 
which was soon to increase 
the wealth and comfort of 
the nation and make it more 
independent of foreign 
countries. In 1790 Samuel 
Slater, an Englishman, 
started a "mill" at Paw- 
tucket, Rhode Island. This 
first "factory" had three card- 
ing machines and seventy- 
two spindles. Societies for 
encouraging American man- 
ufactures were springing up 
in the leading towns of the 
North and in the Middle 
States. In manufactures 
New England ranked first 
and the South last. 
274. Means of Communication. Trade and travel 
between cities and towns or between colonies were not 
extensive, owing to poor roads and the slow means of 
transportation. The river and the ocean still furnished 
the main routes, and the people had to be content with 
the sailing vessel and the flatboat. But at this very 
time John Fitch was experimenting in the use of steam 
on the Delaware River, and in 1790 one of his boats 
made regular trips between Trenton and Philadelphia. 
Travel inland still depended on the saddle-horse and 
the stagecoach. Regular routes gradually grew up 
between the larger cities. One ran from Boston to New 
York and on to Philadelphia. The time required to 
make the whole distance varied from eight to ten days, 




SAMUEL SLATER 



From an engravinifbyj. W. Steele, after 
a drawing oy Lincobi found in George 
S. White's ^^Metnoirs" published in 183b 



Our Country WJicn Washington Became President 217 



depending on the season and condition of the roads. A 
government courier from New York to the frontier posts 
on the Mississippi could 
hardly make the distance 
under two months. 

The farmers west of the 
mountains found it slow 
and expensive to trade in 
eastern markets. More 
and more they built huge 
barges and floated their 
products down the Ohio 
and the Mississippi to New 
Orleans. But the Spaniards 
there charged the settlers 
a heavy duty, although the 
latter demanded the right 
to trade free of charge. The Spanish officers sometimes 
seized both boat and cargo and left the angry owner to 
tramp his long way home, and tell the story of his ill- 
treatment to the other settlers. The pioneers were 




RAPID TRAVELING BY STAGECOACH 




TRANSPORTATION BY WATER BY MEANS OF THE FLATBOAT 



indignant, and threatened to raise an army to drive out 
the insolent Spaniards. But in 1795 Spain, by treaty. 



2 1 8 The Rule of the Federalist Party 

granted to our western traders free use of the mouth of 
the Mississippi River, 

275. Changes in Social Life. The Revolution pro- 
duced many changes in American customs and ways of 
living. The war drove from the country hundreds of 
Tories who were among the wealthiest and best edu- 
cated people (§ 214). Thousands of other families were 
broken up or reduced to poverty. 

Because of our friendship, with France, many French 
ideas and fashions became popular in the large towns, 
and to some extent took the place of the plain ways of 
colonial times. In the villages and on the farm, how- 
ever, people still lived in the .simple manner of the days 
before the Revolution. They still dwelt in log houses, 
raised their food on their own farms, and manufactured 
most of their clothing and furniture themselves. 

276. Education and Culture. The twenty years' 
conflict with England and agitation over the Consti- 
tution made Americans do hard thinking on many 
important questions. They knew more about each other 
and their country than before the war. There were 
great leaders in the land who stirred the people's 
thoughts and feelings by their eloquent words or by 
their wise writings. Newspapers had increased in 
number, but the people still had to depend largely upon 
letters for their news. 

Although the Revolution educated the people in 
many ways, it interrupted schools, hindered students 
from going to college, made the country poorer, and 
so for a time checked the growth of education. Public 
schools outside the cities and towns hardly existed at 
this time, and even the best of them were not to be 
compared with those of our day. The schoolhouses, 
with their hard benches, poor light and heat, and their 
bare walls, would have seemed to us very uninviting, 



Our Country When Washington Became President 219 

Schoolbooks were few. Yet mucli hard studying was 
done in spite of these conditions, for it was the time of 
severe and frequent use of the rod. 

One of the hopeful signs for the future of public 
schools was the action of the old Congress in declaring, 
in the Ordinance of 1787, that in the states to be made 
out of the Northwest Territory, schools should forever 
be encouraged (§ 258). 

277. Religion and Morality. The different religious 
sects were not so jealous as in colonial days, because 
the Revolution had made them better friends. The 
majority of the people were in favor of freedom of 
worship. Although the people of Massachusetts and 
Connecticut were still taxed to support the ministers of 
the Congregational church, Virginia, where the English 
church had been long established by law, had already 
declared for entire religious equality (1786). The Con- 
stitution took away from Congress the power to estab- 
lish any form of religion, or to hinder freedom of wor- 
ship. (See Constitution, Amendments, Article I.) 

But there still remained a great lack of sympathy for 
the unfortunate and criminal classes. A large number 
of' crimes were punished by death in most of the states, 
and men were thrown into prison for not being able to 
pay their debts. The prisons themselves were so poorly 
kept that even able-bodied prisoners, to say nothing of 
the weak and the young, soon lost their health. With 
few exceptions lawbreakers were not punished for the 
purpose of reforming them, but, as in colonial days, as 
a warning to evil-doers (§ 142). There were no asylums 
or reformatories in that time. Insane persons and 
paupers had to be cared for at home or sent to the 
public jail. 

278. Slavery. In nearly all the states negro slavery 
still existed. But the Revolution, with its teachings 



220 



7'he Rule of the Federalist Party 



about freedom and the rights of man, made many people 
think that if it was wrong for Englishmen to tax Amer- 
icans, it could hardly be right for Americans to buy and 
sell Africans. Certain states began to give freedom to 
their slaves. Massachusetts led the way in 1780 and was 
followed by the other New England states. Pennsyl- 
vania early provided for gradual emancipation, but New 
York and New Jersey did not abolish slavery for many 
years. 

In the South, too, men were found who thought 
slavery injurious. Among these were Washington, Jef- 
ferson, Henry, and Madison. Although the Ordinance 
of 1787 forbade slavery, the slaveholders in Congress 
voted for its passage (§ 258). The Quakers in the South, 
as well as in the North, were the strongest enemies of 
slavery. 

We have already seen that slavery took a firmer foot- 
hold in the South than in the North. This result was 
due chiefly to the fact that slave labor was more profit- 
able on the great plantations than on the small farms 

of the North. But another 
cause soon came to help 
favSten slavery on the states 
below Mason and Dixon's 
line. About 1 794 a Yankee 
living in Georgia, Eli Whit- 
ney, invented a cotton gin, 
a machine for separating 
the seed from the cotton. 
It was a great success and 
soon the fields of the South were white with cotton. The 
number of pounds of cotton sent to Europe soon rose 
from two hundred thousand to six million. Slaves were 
now so profitable that slaveholders wanted to buy more 
instead of freeing those they had. The North, too, 




COTTON GIN 



Origin of Political Parties 221 

profited by this invention, since some of its mercliants 
were engaged in the African slave trade, and because 
New England towns began to set tip cotton mills. 

ORIGIN OF POLITICAL PARTIES 

279. The First National Election. In nearly all the 
states, when the first national election occurred, men 
were not permitted to vote unless they owned property. 
Each state followed its own plan of choosing Congress- 
men and Presidential electors. There were no cam- 
paigns wdth speeches and torchlight processions. When 
the votes of the electors had been counted, it was found 
that they had all voted for Washington, who became 
President, and that John Adams had received the next 
highest number, which made him Vice-President. (Con- 
stitution, Article II., § i, I'T 3 and 5.) 

280. Washington's Triumphal Journey and Inaugu- 
ration (1789). 1 On his journey from Mount Vernon to 
New York, Washington was made to feel that he was 
greatly beloved by all classes. Along the road, men, 
women, and children gathered to see their great leader 
and to give him their blessing. At Alexandria his 
neighbors feasted and toasted him. Philadelphia cele- 
brated his coming with decorations of cedar and laurel, 
liberty caps, and triumphal arches ; with ringing of 
bells, firing of cannon, and illumination of the buildings 
and streets of the city. 

But nowhere was Washington more deeply touched 
than at Trenton (§218). Over the bridge crossing the 
Assanpink the women had erected a triumphal arch 
resting on thirteen pillars. On the arch were these 
words, " The Defender of the Mothers will be the Pro- 
tector of the Daughters." Above all was a great dome 
bearing the words, "To Thee Alone." As Washington 

• For the " Gibbs-Channing " portrait of Washington by Stuart, see 
frontispiece. 



222 



The Rule of tJie Federalist Party 



passed under the arch, maidens came to meet him and 
to strew flowers at his feet. 

From shore to shore of New York Bay hundreds of 
boats carried crowds of singing, shouting people. For- 
eign and American ships and land batteries fired salutes, 
while Congressmen and officers of the state and city, with 
a great multitude of citizens, escorted Washington to his 
house. On April 30, 1789, on the balcony of Old Federal 
Hall, in New York City, he took the oath required by 
the Constitution ; and the people, crowding the streets or 
looking on from windows and housetops, cried : " Long 
live George Washington, President of the United States ! " 
(Constitution, Article II., § i, 1 8.) 

^281. Starting the New Government. Congress had 
already met,i and Vice-President Adams was presiding 

over the Senate^ 
when Washington 
was inaugurated. 
Three distin- 
guished men were 
now called to com- 
pose Washington's 
cabinet : Thomas 
Jefferson as Secre- 
tary of State, Alex- 
ander Hamilton as 
Secretary of the 
Treasury, and Gen- 
eral Henry Knox 
as Secretary of 
War. Edmund 
Randolph was 
made Attorney- 
General. These men were to advise the President on 
questions connected with their work, and they were 

I Constitution, Article I., Sec. 4. t «• , 
•J Constitution. Article I., Sec. \. t1 4 and S- 




THE INAUGURATION OF WASHINGTON 



Origin of Political Parties 



223 




JOHN JAY 



selected for their ability alone; at least two of them 
did not always agree in politics with Washington. The 
machinery of the executive 
department was now in run- 
ning order. (Constitution, 
Article II., § 2, 1 2.) 

The third great depart- 
ment of government was set 
in motion when John Jay of 
New York was appointed 
Chief Justice of the Supreme 
Court. (Constitution, Article 

HI., § I.) 

•^282. Hamilton Establishes 
the National Credit. But 

something had to be done to 

provide money for the new 

government and to pay our 

honest debts. 

Secretary of the Treasury 

went bravely to his task. At this time (1790) the United 

States owed France, Holland, and Spain more than eleven 

million five hundred thousand dollars; and Americans 

about forty-two million dollars. In addition, the debts of 

the separate states were not far from twenty-one million 

five hundred thousand dollars (§ 254). 

To carry on the government and pay these debts 
Hamilton recommended and Congress passed several 
very important laws : 

/. A tax on foreign goods. This tariff on imports was 
increased from time to time. ' 

2. The Funding Bill, providing a way of paying the 
debts. 

3. The Assumption Bill (1790), arranging for the pay- 
ment of the war debt of the states by the national 

1 Constitution. Article I., Spc. 8. H !• 



rp-L, _ ,,p... -y. (^ From a port?-ait painted by Asher B 
J. lie yuuilg Durand, • • - . 



tioiv ifi the possession of the 
New York Historical Society 



224 



The Rule of the Federalist Party 



government. Many Congressmen were opposed to the 
United States paying the debts of the states, and the law 
was passed only after an agreement by which certain 
Congressmen from Virginia voted for the bill provided 
certain northern Congressmen would vote to locate the 
national capital in Philadelphia for ten years (i 790-1 800) 
and forever after that on the Potomac. (§ 296.) 

4. A law creating the United States Ba?ik{i ygi). This 
bank was to keep the government's funds, and was to 
help it in borrowing, collecting, and paying out money. 




THE FIRST UNITED STATES BANK AT PHILADELPHIA 



Fnm an old prlal 



The United States was to own a part of the bank, and 
thus enjoy a part of its profits. The opposition to such 
a bank was intense, and even Washington at first hesi- 
tated to sign the bill. 

5. The Excise Law, providing for a tax on distilled 
liquors, was the last important financial measure pro- 
posed by Hamilton. It, too, met opposition, because 
many people did not wish our own products taxed by the 
national government. ' 

283. The Results of Hamilton's Measures. Hamil- 
ton's measures produced the following results : 

/. They gave the people of America and of Europe 
more cotifidence in the new govermnent. Trade revived, 

'Constitution, Article I., Sec. 8. 



Origin of Politic a c Parties 225 

manufactures sprang up, and people brought out the 
money which they had hidden away, and invested it in 
business. Commerce with foreign countries grew, and 
business men came out strongly in defense of what 
Hamilton had done. 

< 2. The Rise of Political Parties. The supporters of 
Hamilton were called Federalists. They believed in a 
strong national government and in passing laws for the 
common good which were not forbidden by the Constitu- 
tion. But many persons took alarm at Hamilton's work 
because they feared that the national government, under 
the Federalists, would take away powers belonging to 
the states. These men gathered around Jefferson as a 
leader and were named by him Republicans, but were 
afterward called Democrats. 

J. Loose and Strict Construction. The Federalists were 
inclined to understand the Constitution in a "liberal " or 
"loose" way, holding that the nation could do many 
things which were not named in the Constitution. The 
Republicans held to " strict " reading of the Constitution, 
and to "states' rights," believing that the government 
had only those powers which were named in that docu- 
ment. They accused the Federalists of favoring a 
monarchy. 

^. The Whisky Rebellion {1794). The pioneer farmers 
of western Pennsylvania found it easier and cheaper to 
make whisky out of their grain than to carry the grain 
across the mountains to eastern markets. They were, 
therefore, bitterly opposed to the excise law, refused to 
pay the tax, tarred and feathered the collectors, and at 
last two thousand of them gathered in arms on Brad- 
dock's Field (§ 165). 

Washington knew the time had come to test the 
strength of the new government. Would the people 
take up arms at his call to enforce the law against their 

t6 



226 



The Rule of the Feaeransi Party 



own countrymen? More than twelve thousand men 
sprang to arms at his command, i and started to put 
down the insurrection. Before the army reached Pitts- 
burgh, the whisky inen had dispersed and their leaders 
had fled. Some were caught and convicted of treason,^ 
but Washington pardoned i them, for the great lesson 
had been taught and the authority of the nation had 
been established. 

284. Western Emigration and Indian Wars (1790- 
1794). While the country was discussing Hamilton's 
measures, a steady stream of emigrants was moving into 
/r\ .^ the Northwest Territory. 

The red men bitterly resented 
this invasion of their hunting 
grounds, and, encouraged by 
^ the British at Detroit, began 
f^ to burn, steal, and scalp when- 
ever opportunity offered. 
They even ambushed and de- 
feated a force of troops under 
General Harmar. 

Washington sent a larger 
army, with St. Clair as its 
commander. But two thousand warriors, led by the 
famous chief, Little Turtle, cut his army to pieces near 
the headwaters of the Wabash River. 

The frontier settlers demanded protection, and " Mad 
Anthony " Wayne was sent to break the power of the 
hostile tribes (§ 235). He built forts at important points, 
and completely defeated the Indians near Maumee Rap- 
ids (1794). After this victory the army marched west- 
ward and built Fort Wayne. Wayne, "the chief that 
never slept," filled the tribes with fear, and the Indian 
power was soon broken. The next year the Indians 
signed a treaty at Greenville. 

' Constitution, Article H., Sec. 2. 
J Constitution. Article III., Sco 4 




LEAVING NEW ENGLAND FOR THE 
WESTERN COUNTRY 



Beginnings of Our Foreign Policy 



227 



An interesting event, common at the close of great 
Indian wars, was the giving np of all the men, women, 
and children that had been captured by the Indians. 
From distant places in Virginia and Kentucky, as well 




■^^^W^ 



From an oM print 



'^Ar^' 



FORT WASHINGTON, CINCINNATI, IN 1787 

Built to protect the Northwestern settlers against the Indians 

as from settlements in the territory, came relatives and 
friends seeking the lost. Many joyous reunions took 
place, although some suffered disappointment. Some- 
times captives remained with the tribes, because no one 
had come to claim them, or because, having lived from 
childhood among the Indians, their friends did not know 
them. For fifteen years after this treaty peace reigned 
and settlers crowded into the Northwest Territory. 

r -BEGINNINGS OF OUR FOREIGN POLICY 

285. The Nature of the Question. The new nation 
had now to turn its attention to foreign affairs. Two 
problems arose: 

/. What should the United States do if two nations 
friendly to her made war upon each other? Should she 
help the one she liked best or thought was in the right, 
or should she remain neutral and aid neither ? 



228 The Rule of the Federalist Pay.y 

2. What should the United States do if another nation 
injured her trade? Should she declare war, or strike 
back and injure the trade of the offending nation? 

These were important questions, and were made still 
more so by the fact that later Presidents would probably 
follow Washington's example. 

286. TheProclamationof Neutrality (1793). During 
most of Washington's administration a terrible revolu- 
tion was raging in France. Her oppressed people arose 
in their fury, beheaded the king and queen, abolished all 
titles, and set up a republic. The kings of Europe took 
alarm and prepared for war. France declared war against 
England, and sent " Citizen " Genet as minister to Amer- 
ica to stir up sympathy and get help. 

Washington knew that aiding France meant war with 
England. He consulted his cabinet and issued a procla- 
mation to the people, declaring that America would not 
take sides in the conflict between France and England. 
This was Washington's famous Proclamation of Neutral- 
ity, and was the beginning of our wise policy of not 
interfering in the affairs of European nations. 

287. The People Take Sides. The Proclamation of 
Neutrality made Genet angry and divided the people. 
Some Republicans accused Washington of favoring 
kings against the people. Was France not trying to do 
as we had done? they asked. Had she not sent men and 
money to America? Was not England our old enemy? 

Although the government would [not permit any one 
to help France, the Republicans were determined to 
show their sympathy. They toasted and feasted Genet, 
wore French colors, and called each other "citizen" 
instead of "Mr." Genet was so puffed up by this treat- 
ment that he called on the people to oppose the policy of 
Washington. But they resented this insult to the gov- 
ernment and Washington asked France to recall Genet.^ 

• Constitution, Article II., Sec. 3. 



Beginnings of Our Foreign Policy 



229 



v288. Jay's Treaty (1794). Ever since the close of the 
Revolutionary War England had refused to surrender 
Detroit, Niagara, Oswego, and other western posts, and 
her agents had encouraged the Indians to make war 
upon our settlers in the West. On the sea she captured 
our vessels because they carried food to France and 
traded with the French colonies. France had opened 
her West India trade to our ships and hundreds of them 
were making large profits in the new field. These 
unarmed merchant vessels fell an easy prey to Eng- 
lish men-of-war. 
Whether nations 
at war had a right 
to treat a neutral 
country in this 
way was not then 
a settled ques- 
tion, but Eng- 
land acted as if 
she were right. 

She even went 
so far as to seize 

our sailors for her atoning Hamilton for defending jay's treaty 

After bein^ strugk in' the forehead by a stojte, Hatnilton 
own ships on the salmly said to the crowd: '■'■If you use such striking 
^ arguments, I must retire " 

ground that they 

were subjects of England. America claimed that " free 
ships make free goods" and that all men have a right 
to change their citizenship. 

Feeling rose so high that Washington, to avoid war, 
sent John Jay to England to make a treaty.' England 
agreed to surrender the western posts and to allow our 
vessels to trade with her West India Islands, but she 
refused to stop seizing neutral goods and impressing 
American seamen. The treaty was very unpopular, 
especially with the Republicans. In New York City 

1 Constitution, Article II., Sec. 2. H 2. 




230 The Rule of the Federalist Party 

Hamilton was stoned while lie was addressing a public 
meeting in defense of the treaty. But Washington and 
the Senate knew it was a choice between the treaty and 
war. The treaty, therefore, was ratified, with some 
changes. ' 

289. Washington's Retirement and Farewell Ad- 
dress. President Washington had been unanimously 
reelected in 1792, but declined to be a candidate a third 
time. He had spent eight years in laying wisely the 
foundation of the domestic and foreign policy of the 
new nation. He was growing old, and felt that it was 
time to rest. Besides, the bitter party men of that day 
did not hesitate to attack him because he was supposed 
to be more friendly to England than to France. 

Washington, therefore, sent forth his celebrated fare- 
well address, a document full of patriotic wisdom. He 
said that union was the source of safety, prosperity, and 
liberty. " Citizens by birth or choice of a common coun- 
try, that country has a right to your affections 

Let me now warn you in the most solemn manner against 
the baneful effects of party spirit." 

Again Washington retired (1797) to Mount Vernon to 
spend his few remaining days. He died in 1 799, mourned 
by the entire American people. In France and even in 
England honor was paid to his memory. 

290. The Election of John Adams (1796). When 
Washington refused to be a candidate for a third term 
the majority of the Federalists supported John Adams 
for President, while the Republicans favored Thomas 
Jefferson. 

This was the first Presidential election in which much 
campaigning was done. The people and the papers took 
sides. There were no great processions, but in papers, 
in pamphlets, and in private conversation both candi- 
dates were severely attacked and ably defended. 

1 Constitution, Article II., Sec. 3. 



Beginnings of Our Foreign Policy 



231 



Adams was elected President, but Jefferson became 
Vice-President. (Constitution, Article II., § 1,^3,) 

291. Trouble with France Again; The "X. Y. Z. 
Affair." The French Revolution soon ran its course. 
From beheading the royal fam- 
ily, the leaders went to behead- 
ing each other. The Republic 
gave place to the Directory, a 
government managed by five 
men. They declared Jay's 
treaty an insult to France, cap- 
tured American vessels, and 
drove our m.inister, General 
Pinckney, out of their country. 

President Adams denounced 
the conduct of France, called 
Congress in extra session, and 
sent John Marshall and El- 
bridge Gerry to join Pinckney 
in trying to treat with France. 
But the Directory sent agents 
to inform them that America 
could win the friendship of France only by paying a 
large bribe to each director. When Adams made his 
report to Congress he called these agents Mr. X., Mr. 
Y., and Mr. Z. Hence, the incident is called the "X. 
Y. Z. Affair." 

The conduct of France raised a storm of indignation 
in this country, and the thrilling words, " Millions for 
defense ; not one cent for tribute," became a rallying cry. 
France and her friends became unpopular in the United 
States, French flags were taken down, and French cus- 
toms were dropped (§ 287). The people praised Presi- 
dent Adams, and everybody sang the new and stirring 
song, "Hail Columbia." Congress increased the army. 




JOHN ADAMS 

From the portrait painted by John 

Trumbull, now in Memorial Ha 11^ 

Harvard University, Cambridge, 

Massachusetts 



1 Constitution. Article II., Sec. 3. 



2^2 The Rule of the Federalist Party 

provided for a Secretary of the Navy, and ordered new 
war vessels built.* War seemed certain. The only 
fighting, however, was done at sea, and after several 
American victories France was ready to make peace 
(1800). 

THE DECLINE OF THE FEDERALISTS 

292. The Alien and Sedition Laws (1798). The 
Federalist party took advantage of the great unpopu- 
larity of France and her friends. Most of the foreigners 
in America were Republicans, who sympathized with 
France and hated England and the Federalists. They 
were trying, so the Federalists said, to break down all 
orderly government, as had been done in France. 

Two acts aimed at foreigners were passed by Con- 
gress. The first increased the time necessary before a 
foreigner could become a citizen from five to fourteen 
years. The second gave the President power to order 
any foreigner whom he considered dangerous to the 
government to leave the country, A third act aimed to 
punish, by fine and imprisonment, any one who, by 
writing or speaking, tended to bring the government 
into contempt. 

Although these laws were not very strictly enforced, 
they seemed so dangerous to liberty and so resembled 
laws lately made in England, that the Republicans began 
to regain their popularity. The Alien and Sedition laws, 
as the last two were called, hastened the downfall of the 
Federalist party. The affection of the people for their 
state governments was yet so great that they were 
inclined to view every new use of power by the nation 
with jealousy. 

293. The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions (1798- 
1799). The most serious opposition to these laws came 
from Kentucky and Virginia. Their legislatures passed 
resolutions declaring : 

1 Constitution, Article I.. Sec 8, HH i-'. '3. U- 



TJic Decline of the Federalists 



233 



/. That the Alien and Sedition acts are open viola- 
tions of the Constitution, 

2. That the Constitution is merely an agreement 
or "compact" between the states as equal partners. 

J. That each 
state may decide 
whether a law is 
against the Con- 
stitution or not. 

Virginia said: 
"When Con- 
gress passes a 
law contrary to 
the Constitution, 
it is the duty of 
the states to 
interfere." Ken- 
tucky went fur- 
ther and declared 
that a state could 




THE OLD STATE HOUSE, FRANKFORT, KENTUCKY 

Here the Kentucky Resolutions^ written by Jefferson, 
were passed 



"nullify" a law ; that is, could stop it from being carried 
out within the limits of the state. 

Madison wrote the Virginia and Jefferson the Ken- 
tucky resolutions. 

. 294. The Campaign of 1800 and the Defeat of the 
^Federalists. The campaign of 1800 was a very bitter 
one. Adams and Jefferson were again the candidates. 
The Federalists were fighting to hold power; the Re- 
publicans, to gain it. The Federalists told the people 
that Jefferson and his party would ruin the country by 
undoing the great measures of Washington and Adams, 
and by introducing disorder and misrule into the gov- 
ernment. 

The Republicans asserted that the Federalists were 
rapidly carrying the government towards monarchy. 



234 



The Rule of the Federalist Party 



and were really afraid to trust the common people. To 
prove this they declared that President Adams was an 
■ ' ,, aristocrat in feeling, and that 

the acts of his administration 
all pointed to a greater in- 
crease in the power of the 
national government than was 
permitted by the Constitution 
(§292). 

Then, too, Jefferson and his 
party talked about the high 
taxes and the heavy expenses 
of the Federalists. There was 
some truth in what they said, 
for in 1792 the government 
cost only about three million 
five hundred thousand dollars, 
but by 1800 the cost had grown 
to over ten million five hun- 

Many 
believed that Jefferson would 
be more democratic and less extravagant in managing 
the government. 

As the campaign went on, the war of words grew 
hotter. Besides unpopular laws, quarrels among the 
Federalists helped defeat President Adams. 

295. The Results of the Election. The victory of 
the Republican party was complete. The Federalists 
never regained power. Under the old way of voting for 
President it was possible to have not only a President 
and Vice-President of opposite parties, but also for the 
two candidates of the same party to receive the same 
number of electoral votes. Just this happened. Thomas 
Jefferson and Aaron Burr, both Republicans, tied for 
the Presidency. The election then fell to the House of 




JOHN MARSHALL 

From a portrait painted by Chester A rpd th nil qp n rl rl nil r? re: 

Harding, now in the Boston Athe- ^^^^ inOUSaUQ QOiiarS 
nceum 



Jefferson s New Policy 235 

Representatives, where a long and exciting contest was 
held. Jefferson was finally elected by the aid of the Fed- 
eralists. To avoid tie votes in the future the Constitu- 
tion was amended so that the electors are now required 
to vote for one man for President and for another for 
Vice-President. (Constitution, Amendment XII.) 

The Federalists were sorry to give over the govern- 
ment to the Republicans, and, in the last days of their 
rule. President Adams appointed John Marshall, a Fed- 
eralist, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court.' Although 
the Republicans now came into power, this great judge 
continued in office for many years, and his decisions 
increased greatly the strength of the national govern- 
ment. 

296. The Capital Removed to Washington (1800). 
Washington himself had selected a tract of land ten 
miles square on the Potomac as the future home of the 
national government. To this place, called "The Dis- 
trict of Columbia," came the officers with the records. 
What a change in passing from the city of Philadelphia 
to this new town in the midst of forests, where the 
streets were little better than roads cut through the 
woods! The government was not only to be in a new 
place, but also in the hands of a new party. ^ 

THE RULE OF THE REPUBLICAN PARTY 

JEFFERSON'S NEW POLICY 

297. Jefferson's Ideas of Government; Republican 
Simplicity. Great was the joy of the Republicans when 
they saw their chief inaugurated, and celebrations were 
held in many parts of the country. Although Jefferson 
and Adams had worked together during the Revolution, 
they were very different in their ideas and actions. 
While Adams belonged to democratic New England 
and was accustomed to the town meeting, he was rather 

^Constitution, Article II., Sec. 2, ^ 2. 

2 This area was later reduced to 60 sq. mi. exclusive of 10 sq. mi. of wate» surface. 

3 Constitution. Article I., Sec. 8, H :?. 



236 



The Ride of tjie Republican Party 



aristocratic and believed that the "well born" should 
hold office and make the laws. He agreed with Wash- 
ington in thinking that the Presidency was a very digni- 
fied office, and should be vsurrounded with a great deal 







MONTICELLO, THE HOME OF THOMAS JEFFERSON 



From s pSotof^.-tpb 



of ceremony and show. Jefferson belonged to aristo- 
cratic Virginia; he was very democratic and had great 
faith in the common people. He wished the President 
to dress and act like a plain man with simple manners. 

In his inaugural address Jefferson declared "we are 
all Republicans; we are all Federalists," and that among 
the principles of our government are: "Equal and 
exact justice to all men — peace, commerce, and honest 
friendship with all nations — entangling alliances with 
none. The supremacy of the civil over the military 
authority; economy in the public expense — and the 
honest payment of our public debts." 

Jefferson ^ urged Congress to cut down the army and 
navy and reduce the number of civil officers.^ This was 
done and a large saving resulted. The money was used 



1 Jefferson broke the beautiful custom', started by Washington, of appearing before 
Congress and of reading his message. Jefferson was a poor speaker but a good writer. 

2 Constitution, Article II., Sec. 3. 



Jefferson's New Policy 



237 



by Albert Gallatin, the wise Secretary of the Treasury, 
to reduce the national debt nearly one-half. Still more 
could have been paid if Congress had not repealed the 
excise and other taxes, and if Louisiana had not been 
purchased. However, a good example had been set for 
future Presidents. 

298. The Purchase of Louisiana (1803). The great- 
est event of Jefferson's administration was the purchase 
of Louisiana. The vast unexplored region between the 
Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains had been given to 
Spain by France under the treaty of 1763. But France 
had again become its owner 
and word came to America 
that Napoleon, the ambitious 
ruler of France, intended to 
send an army to occupy Lou- 
isiana. Although Jefferson 
was a friend of France, he was 
at once alarmed by the news 
that a strong, instead of a weak, 
nation was to control the Mis- 
sissippi. He said, "There is 
on the globe one single spot, 
the possessor of which is our 
natural and habitual enemy. 
It is New Orleans." Jefferson 
resolved to purchase that part 
of Louisiana if possible. 

But Napoleon, who was at 
war with England, needed 
money, and agreed with our 
minister to take fifteen 




THOMAS JEFFERSON 

From a painting by Rembrandt Peale, 
now in the possession of the New York 



Historical Society, New York City 

million dollars for the whole of Louisiana, about one 
million square miles.' By this master stroke Jefferson 
doubled the area of the United States, although he 



' Constitution, Article I., Sec. 8, II i. 
« Constitution, Article II., Sec. 2. If 2. 



238 The Rule of the Republican Party 

violated his own doctrine of "strict construction" 
(§283). (See map facing this page.) 

299. The Effects of the Purchase. This act of Jef- 
ferson's had many important results : 

/. War with France or Spain was avoided and the 
settlers west of the Allegheny Mountains were made 
happy by the opening of the natural outlet for their 
commerce which Spain had closed (§ 274). 

2. The frontiersmen were prevented from joining 
in the plans of Aaron Burr, Burr had been driven out 
of his party, defeated for governor of New York by 
Hamilton's influence, and had then shot Hamilton in a 
duel (1804). He had become an outcast for this crime, 
and was accused of planning to establish a government 
of his own at New Orleans. Jefferson had him arrested 
and tried for treason, but he was found not guilty. 

J. Extreme Federalists, in spite of their previous 
teachings, took the "strict construction" view, and 
accused Jefferson of violating the Constitution in buy- 
ing Louisiana. 

4. A ^reat field for western emigration was opened, 
and the necessity for knowing about the new region 
caused the government to send out its first exploring 
expedition. 

300. Effects of Jefferson's Policy. The reforms made 
by the Republicans, the progress of trade and commerce, 
and the kindness of Jefferson toward his opponents made 
him popular. He was reelected in 1804 by a great 
majority. 

301. First Exploration of the Great West (1804- 
1806}; Lewis and Clark; Pike. An expedition under 
the leadership of Lewis and Clark left the log cabin 
town of St. Louis in the spring of 1 804. (See map, page 
239.) The party worked its way up to the headwaters of 
the Missouri River, crossed over the Rocky Mountains, 

• Constitution, Article III., Sec. 3. 



Jefferson s New Policy 



239 



and floated down the Columbia River to the blue waters 
of the Pacific. The expedition returned the next year 
from its work, and the people of the East for the first 
time learned of the " vast illimitable West " with its won- 
derful resources. 




THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION 

The ar^-oivs indicate the directions of the journey and the return 

By this expedition Lewis and Clark gave the United 
States another claim to the splendid region called Ore- 
gon. That section of country had been discovered as 
early as 1792 by a Boston fur trader, who entered the 
mouth of a great river which he named the Columbia. 
The expedition of Lewis and Clark strengthened our 
rights to the Oregon country against the claims of Eng- 
land and Russia. 

In the meantime another explorer, Pike, pushed up the 
Missouri to the Osage. He followed this river for a time 
and then moved across Kansas into Colorado, where he 
measured a great mountain which now bears his name. 
Amid terrible hardships his little party crossed the 
mountains and struck the Rio Grande. Here they were 
seized by the Spaniards and held for a time as prisoners. 

These explorations opened the eyes of the nation to 
the great value of the Louisiana Purchase. Yet many 



240 



The Rule of the Republican Party 




people believed that the republic was now too large and 
its parts too distant to be long held together. Happily 

for the country a new means of 
binding its parts more firmly 
together was already at hand. 

302. Robert Fulton and His 
Steamboat. We have already 
seen experiments with steam- 
boats on the Delaware (§ 274). 
Even more successful attempts 
were made on the Hudson. In 
1807 Fulton's steamboat, the 
" Clermont," made its first trip 
from New York to Albany. 
When the trial day came, hun- 
dreds of people, some hopeful, 
but most doubting, gathered to 
witness the start. At the signal 
the " Clermont '•' moved from her place, but suddenly the 
machinery stopped. " I told you so," said one in the 
crowd. " It's a failure," cried another. While they were 
talking Fulton adjusted the machinery, and the "Cler- 
mont," to the 
surprise and 
joy of the 
multitude, 
steamed 
away up the 
Hudson. 

The dis- 
tance to Al- 
bany, one 
hundred and 

fifty miles, was made in thirty-two hours. The flatboat 
and the sailing vessel now had a dangerous rival. 



ROBERT FULTON 

After the pai7itiiifrby Benjamin 
West 




Till-; "CLKRMONT" STEAMING TO ALBANY 



A Struggle for Commercial Freedom . 241 

A STRUGGLE FOR COMMERCIAL FREEDOM 

303. War with the Barbary States (1801-1805). For 

a long time the Mohammedan states in northern Africa 
had preyed on the commerce of Christian nations. Euro- 
pean countries had paid them tribute, and America at first 
followed their example. But, in 1801, Jefferson sent a 
fleet to the Mediterranean and made war upon these 
pirates. Hard fighting occurred, in which the American 
navy won much fame and gained valuable experience. 
American commerce was made safe in that part of the 
world, and a good example had been set for Europe. 

304. How European Wars Aided American Com- 
merce. During the long wars between England and 
France the great English navy kept the ships of France 
from going to sea. French West India trade fell largely 
into our hands, and tariff duties from it rose in one year 
from fourteen million to twenty million dollars. This 
increase enabled Secretary Gallatin to pay still more of 
the national debt. 

But England and France were willing to do almost 
anything to harm each other. Without warning, Eng- 
land declared that goods carried from the French West 
Indies to the United States and thence to France were 
liable to capture. Within six months the British navy 
seized over one hundred American vessels and impressed 
nearly one thousand of our seamen. British war ves- 
sels watched American ports like birds of prey. A great 
cry was raised against England's conduct, but our navy 
had been cut down (§ 297) and it was the policy of Jef- 
ferson not to fight if he could avoid war. 

305. British Orders and French Decrees (1806-1807). 
England's wealth was largely in her trade. Napoleon 
decided to strike her a deadly blow by shutting her com- 
merce out of all European ports under his control. Eng- 
land struck back by an order in council blockading these 



242 The Rule of the Republican Party 

ports. Although Napoleon's navy had been destroyed 
by Lord Nelson in a great sea fight, he promptly issued 
his famous Berlin decree forbidding all trade with Great 
Britain. England replied with new orders in council 
declaring all neutral vessels trading with France or her 
friends subject to capture. Napoleon's Milan decree 
made all ships having any dealings with England sub- 
ject to capture. 

As a result of these acts England captured, in one 
year, nearly two hundred American vessels, and France 
as many as she could, while impressment Avent on un- 
checked. Public opinion in the United States became 
more warlike. 

306. How the Crisis was Met. Both Jefferson and 
his Secretary of State, James Madison, believed peace 
to be the wisest policy for America. Three important 
measures were enacted to meet the emergency : 

/. Instead of building large warships, as the Feder- 
alists had done. Congress had one hundred and seventy- 
six gunboats constructed and distributed among the sea- 
ports. In time of peace these boats were to be laid up 
on shore. In time of war they were to be manned by 
the people and sent out to meet the enemy. They proved 
worthless. 

2. Jefferson hoped to stop the injuries of the English 
by a treaty (1806). But Pinckney and Monroe made so 
poor a treaty that the President put it in his pocket 
instead of sending it to the Senate. England refused to 
stop impressing our seamen or to acknowledge that 
"neutral ships make neutral goods." 

J. A non-importation act forbade Americans to im- 
port British goods. Although our trade was worth sev- 
eral millions to England each year, so desperate was her 
struggle with Napoleon that she could not afford to 
notice our "boycott," as once she had done (§§ 188. 196). 



A Struggle for Commercial Freedom 



243 



307. Searching an American Frigate (1807). Eng- 

land answered America's peace measures by again seiz- 
ing neutral goods and searching for supposed British 
sailors. The height of insult was reached when the 
British frigate "Leopard" ordered the American frigate 
"Chesapeake" to submit to search. The American vessel, 
just starting on a long voyage, was not prepared to fight. 
Nevertheless, her commander refused the demand and 
the British opened fire. Three men fell dead and eighteen 




BRITISH OFFICERS SEARCHING AN AMERICAN VESSEL FOR SEAMEN 

were wounded. As the American flag was being hauled 
down a brave sailor touched off, with a live coal, the only 
American gun fired. British officers came on board and 
called the roll, while American sailors stood in ranks for 
inspection. Four sailors were seized, and the " Chesa- 
peake," humiliated and disgraced, sailed slowly back to 
Hampton Roads. 

The indignation of the American people knew no 
bounds. Public meetings were held in all the large 
cities to denounce the outrage. Thousands called for 
war, but Jefferson, still true to his policy of economy 
and peace, was satisfied to order English vessels to leave 
our coasts. 



244 



Tlic Rule of the Republican Party 




HOW THE FEDERALISTS RIDICULED THE EMBARGO 



308. The Embargo (1807). To punish England still 
further, Congress, on the recommendation of the PrevSi- 
dent, passed the Embargo Act. This law forbade our 
vessels to sail for foreign ports. To many people this 
looked like punishing America for the acts of Great 

Britain. The farmer, 
the merchant, the 
■^•'^^=^ manufacturer, and the 
laborer all suffered 
severely from the oper- 
ation of the Embargo. 
As a result an exten- 
sive smuggling trade 
sprang up with Canada, 
Florida, and the West 

From an old print ludicS, Finding it 

impossible to enforce the law. Congress repealed it. 
Jefferson was greatly disappointed at its failure. A Non- 
Intercourse Act was passed, but this also proved useless. 

309. The New President and the Last Appeal for 
Peace. Jefferson, following the example of Washington, 
refused a third term, and wrote a "farewell address." 
James Madison had been Jefferson's Secretary of State 
(§261). He now became President and tried hard to fol- 
low in the footsteps of Jefferson by carrjdng out his 
policy of economy at home and peace abroad. 

Madison again made an effort to secure, by treaty, the 
repeal of the Orders in Council, but in vain. In 18 10 
Congress passed a bill, practically repealing the Non- 
Intercourse Act, but promising that if either France or 
England would repeal their laws against our commerce, 
the United States would refuse to trade with the other. 

310. Napoleon's Game. It took the people a long 
time to learn that European nations act for themselves 
alone. When the Embargo made it illegal for American 



A Struggle for Commercial Freedom 



245 



vessels to go abroad, Napoleon, although pretending 
friendship, ordered all our vessels in ports under his 
control to be seized. He was simply aiding in enforcing 
the Embargo, he said ! He also took advantage of the 
new bill, and informed America that France had repealed 
her decrees against neutral trade (18 10). Many Amer- 
ican merchant vessels sailed for European ports, where 
Napoleon promptly seized them and took their cargoes, 
amounting to ten million dollars. In spite of this out- 
rage the new President was unwilling to go to war. 

311. Rise of the "War Fever" (1811). Matters 
were hastening to a crisis. Our minister to England 
came home, convinced that relief could come only 
through war. News of Indian outrages in the Indiana 
Territory revived the belief that England was again 
urging on the tribes (§ 284). 

Madison was at length so provoked by the renewed 
seizure of our goods and the impressment of seamen 
that he ordered the frigate "President" to sea to protect 
our trade. She fell in with , ^.1_. 1., 

the "Little Belt" and a 
fight followed, in which the 
English vessel, which was 
much smaller than the 
"President," was badly 
beaten. The people felt that 
this repaid the British for 
the "Chesapeake" insult. 

When Congress met, 
November, 181 1, the peace- 
loving Republicans found 

a war party m tneir midst, clay and calhoun urging madison to 
led by young and able men ^^^^^^^ ^'^^ 

from the West and South. Foremost among them were 
Henry Clay of Kentucky, just elected Speaker of the 




246 The Rule of the Republican Party 

House of Representatives,! and John C. Calhoun of 
South Carolina. These men soon had the majority on 
their side, and even President Madison, tired of fruitless 
efforts for peace, agreed that war must come. A declara- 
tion of war was voted by Congress, June 18, 1812. 

312. Summary of the Causes of the War. The 
causes of the war had been working over a long period. 
From Revolutionary days, the bitter feeling against 
England had been kept alive. After the Constitution 
was formed the people took increasing pride in the 
nation, and felt more keenly than ever the overbearing 
conduct of the British government. 

England insulted our national pride in various ways: 
(/) By furnishing the Indians of the Northwest with 
arms, and encouraging them to attack the settlers. {2) 
By refusing to recognize that neutral ships made neu- 
tral goods, and, then, by seizing American cargoes. (j~) 
By searching American vessels to find British deserters, 
and by impressing American sailors. Six thousand 
American sailors were said to be serving on English 
warships. {4) By refusing to pay for the wrongs inflicted, 

313. The Strength of the Two Nations. England 
had about two and a half times as many people as 
America. But since England had to come to America 
to fight, her greater population did not count for so 
much. The English people, however, were willing to 
pay heavier taxes than the Americans. 

England was far better prepared for war than we 
were. Her army was large and used to fighting the 
great Napoleon. But even greater strength rested in 
her navy — by far the largest in the world. 

1 The Speaker is elected by the members and is the presiding oflficer of the House. 
He appoints the members of the various committees with tiie exception of the committef; 
on rules, from which the Speaker is excluded, its members, since igio, being appointed 
by the House. The salary of the Speaker is $12,000 a year. 

8 Constitution. Article 1., Sec. 8. 



The Second War for Independence 247 

Our regular army consisted of only a few thousand 
soldiers, and state militia was our main dependence. 
Our navy, too, was small indeed, and had only begun to 
establish a reputation. And, unfortunately, America 
was not unanimously in favor of war. The strongest 
opposition came from New England, because war would 
greatly injure her trade. Only the South and West 
were eager to fight. Fortunately, the English army was 
fully employed in fighting Napoleon during the first 
two years of the war. 

THE SECOND WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 

314. The Battle of Tippecanoe (1811). The Indians 
and settlers in the Northwest could not wait for a decla- 
ration of war. Governor Harrison of Indiana Territory, 







1::::;':, ''I'liii'i ■ 

FORT HARRISON, ON THE WABASH, l8l2 



from a contemporary eograTin; 



fearing an Indian outbreak under Tecumseh, the great 
Shawnee chief, and his brother the " Prophet," sum- 
moned volunteers to join his regiment of regulars. He 
moved from Vincennes (§ 234) up the Wabash, built Fort 
Harrison, and then marched against the Prophet's town 
at the junction of the Tippecanoe and the Wabash rivers, 
Tecumseh was in the South and the Prophet was sur- 
prised at the unexpected visit. 

Harrison encamped his little army on rising ground 
and agreed to parley with the Indians on the next day. 



248 TJic Rule of the Republican Party 

That night the Prophet and the "medicine" men stirred 
up their warriors to the fighting point, and before day 
dawned the Indians rushed into Harrison's camp, shoot- 
ing down his soldiers by the light of their own camp- 
fires. When daylight came, however, the soldiers put 
the Indians to flight by a bayonet charge. This victory 
made Harrison a frontier hero. On Tecumseh's return 
from the South he and his braves openly joined the 
British. 

315. The Campaigns of 1812. It seemed easiest to 
strike England by overrunning her Canadian posses- 
sions. When the war opened three armies invaded 
Canada, one by way of Detroit, under General Hull ; 
another by way of Niagara, under Van Rensselaer, and 
a third by way of Lake Cham plain, under Dearborn. 
These forces were to combine and conquer all Canada 
before England could send a large army to America. 

The whole plan, from beginning to end, failed. Hull 
was hardly behind the walls of Fort Detroit before he 
surrendered his army to the English without firing a 
gun, and all of Michigan, and Fort Dearborn, now 
Chicago, fell into the hands of the Canadians and the 
Indians. The British also defeated and captured a 
portion of Van Rensselaer's forces as they charged up 
Oueenston Heights. General Dearborn failed to arouse 
the enthusiasm of New York and New England, and 
only reached the enemy's border. It was clear that 
Canada could not be conquered at a dash. 

316. Victories on the Sea; The "Constitution" Cap- 
tures the "Guerriere." Little was expected from our 
navy. England laughed at the "fir-built things," and 
made sport of our "gridiron " flag. But a great surprise 
was in store for the world when the American frigate 
"Constitution" met the "Guerriere" off the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence (18 12). At the call of the fife and drum every 



The Second War for Independence 



249 



man on the American vessel ran to his post. The sailors 
climbed into the rigging, the gunners double-loaded 
their cannon, and the powder boys ran for supplies of 
ammunition. Muskets and pistols were placed near at 
hand, and sand was scattered over the deck. 

The " Guerriere " had already opened fire, but Captain 
Hull of the " Constitution " waited till within pistol shot 
of the enemy. Then he fired a whole broadside. A Brit- 
ish mast fell ! The ships now came close together and 




THE ENGAGEMENT OF THE "CONSTITUTION" AND "GUERRIERE" 

From a rare fi-int eyigraved by I. G. McRae, after the paititing by G. White 

the American sailors tried to tie them fast. Both crews 
prepared to "board" and fight it out hand to hand, but 
the ships drifted apart. The noise of the cannon, the 
constant crack of muskets, the loud commands of offi- 
cers, the shrieks of the wounded, the clouds of smoke, 
the powder-stained faces of the gunners, all joined to 
make an awful scene. 

As the two vessels parted, the remaining masts of the 
" Guerriere " fell. With great holes torn in her side she 
lay a helpless wreck, and soon "struck" her flag to the 
"Constitution." Captain Hull carried his prisoners to 



250 The Rule of the Republican Party 

Boston and received a rousing reception from the people. 
Salutes were fired, swords voted, resolutions passed, and 
bonfires burned to testify the people's joy. 

Later the " Constitution " won a similar victory over 
the British frigate " Java," and was given the proud name 
of "Old Ironsides." The warship "United States" also 
won a great victory over the "Macedonian." Smaller 
American vessels were also victorious. The "Wasp" 
took the " Frolic," the " Hornet" the " Peacock," and the 
"Enterprise" beat the "Boxer." The "Essex," with 
Porter in command, sailed around Cape Horn and cap- 
tured more British merchant vessels in the Pacific Ocean 
than could be cared for. She was finally captured, how- 
ever, by two British men-of-war. 

317. Effect of Our Naval Success. The brilliant work 
of the navy kept alive the hope of success in the war, and 
showed how unwise had been the policy of neglecting to 
build up a strong navy. Europe was simply amazed. 

Again and again the most powerful nations had built 
navies only to have them destroyed by England. When 
the war began England was looked upon by the whole 
world as the "mistress of the seas." The English people 
could not understand these repeated defeats. In Parlia- 
ment and in the press men tried to " explain them away." 
Some said the British ships were old and their masts 
rotten. Others declared that the American vessels were 
larger and carried more men and guns. But there were 
the victories ! 

Our first important naval defeat was the capture of the 
unfortunate "Chesapeake" by the "Shannon." Captain 
Lawrence met the enemy near Boston and gave battle 
before his crew was well trained. After he had been 
mortally wounded he cried out to his men, " Don't give 
up the ship!" And this dying command became the 
motto of the American navy. 



The Second War for Independence 251 

Other American vessels were captured, but the ma- 
jority were finally blockaded in our ports by superior 
force. A few, however, escaped and continued to win 
victories to the end of the war. 

Besides our regular navy, hundreds of private vessels 
obtained letters of marque from the government,' and 
sailed away to pounce upon the enemy's merchant ships 
wherever found (§ 237). England's loss was greater 
from these privateers than from our regular navy. 

318. Harrison's Campaign and Perry's Victory 
(1813). Hull's disaster at Detroit spread alarm through 
the West ; it meant Indian massacre. The people called 
loudly for General Harrison. He was ordered to recover 
Detroit, and in midwinter hastened to his task, with 
troops from Kentucky and other states. The British and 
Indians were already attacking frontier forts in Ohio 
and Indiana. General Winchester was surrounded by 
Colonel Proctor and his Indians on the river Raisin in 
southern Michigan, and forced to surrender his little 
army. In spite of Proctor's pledge, many of the pris- 
oners were massacred by the Indians. Kentucky was 
deeply aroused by news of the massacre, and hastened 
reenforcements. 

While Harrison was gathering troops and supplies, 
a young naval officer, Captain Perry, was busy building 
a fleet of war vessels on Lake Erie. The British were 
doing the same. In September, 181 3, the two fleets met 
near Put-in-Bay. Perry had nine vessels, three more 
than the English, but they were smaller and had fewer 
guns For three hours the battle raged. Perry's flag- 
ship, the " Lawrence," was badly shattered and her crew 
nearly all killed or wounded. Perry, with his flag bear- 
ing Lawrence's motto, was rowed through a storm of 
leaden hail to the " Niagara." He immediately gave the 
signal for close action and tore through the enemy's 

' Constitution, Article I., Sec. 8. 



252 



The Ride of the Republican Party 



lines, pouring his broadsides right and left. After eight 
minutes the victory was won. With the smoke of battle 
still hovering over the "Lawrence," Perry wrote his 




Adnpti-d from tba painting bj W. H. Powdl 
PERRY AT THE BATTLE OF LAKE ERIE 

Leaving the helpless '■'■Lawrence" he was rowed to tfte '■^Niagara" 

famous dispatch to Harrison : " We have met the enemy 
and they are ours; two ships, two brigs, one schooner, 
and one sloop." The country hailed with joy the news 
of this victory. 

Proctor and Tecumseh meanwhile retreated to Can- 
ada, and Harrison pursued. More than half of his 
army was made up of Kentuckians whose war-cry was, 
" Remember the river Raisin." Perry's fleet carried the 
army across the Lake, and Harrison hastened to meet 
the enemy in battle on the Thames River. Tecumseh 
was slain and Proctor fled for his life from the fury of 
the Kentuckians. The ground lost by Hull was now 
more than recovered, and again the nation rejoiced. 

319. Other Events in Canada (1813-1814) ; Lundy's 
Lane. Madison sent new generals to the Niagara and 
St. Lawrence frontiers, but they succeeded little better 



The Second War for hidependence 253 

than the old ones. Canada, however, was again invaded 
and York (now Toronto) captured, but unfortunately- 
some of the soldiers burned the capitol. An attempt 
was made to capture Montreal, but the generals quar- 
reled, the troops were poorly supplied, and the expedi- 
tion was abandoned. Encouraged by these American 
failures, the British crossed the river and attacked Sack- 
ett's Harbor, but Jacob Brown, a militia officer, success- 
fully defended the place. The British also invaded and 
plundered the region from Niagara to Buffalo. 

Events on the Canadian frontier were a little more 
favorable in 18 14. Younger and more enthusiastic men 
did the work. Forces under the command of Generals 
Brown, Ripley, and Scott fought hard battles at Chip- 
pewa and Lundy's Lane, on the Niagara River, but by 
the end of the year the region was again abandoned. 

320. McDonough's Victory (1814). The defeat of 
Napoleon enabled England in 18 14 to send thousands of 
her best troops to America, and great preparations were 
made to invade New York by Lake Champlain (§ 222). 
The American troops were at Plattsburg under General 
McComb. McDonough's fleet of fourteen vessels was 
guarding the lake. The British bore down upon him 
with sixteen vessels, one of which carried thirty-seven 
guns. Against great odds McDonough won a splendid 
victory, forcing every British ship to strike its flag. 
Even the English veterans were frightened at the 
result, and beat a hasty retreat to the border without 
striking a blow. 

321. Washington Burned and Baltimore Attacked 
(1814). As soon as the war in Europe permitted, England 
also sent her fleets to blockade our ports. Various towns 
on the New England coast were captured and plundered. 

A large expedition under Admiral Cockburn and 
General Ross sailed up Chesapeake Bay and marched 



254 The Rule of the Republican Party 

against the capital. Washington was unprotected and 
the officers, including the President, fled panic-stricken. 
A few thousand hastily gathered regulars and militia 
were brushed aside at Bladensburg, and the enemy 
entered the city (August, 1814). The Capitol, the White 
House, and the Department buildings were burned. 

The British then sailed away to attack Baltimore. 
Troops were landed to storm the works around the city 
as soon as the fleet had silenced Fort McHenry which 
guarded the harbor. But although the fleet bombarded 
the fort all night, morning saw the " star-spangled ban- 
ner" still floating over the works.^ The British troops 
reembarked, and the fleet sailed away to join the expedi- 
tion against the South. 

322. Jackson and New Orleans. The most impor- 
tant British expedition of the war was sent against New 
Orleans. It appeared an easy task to gain a foothold on 
the lower Mississippi, and in November, 18 14, a great 
fleet and army sailed from Jamaica. 

The President ordered General Andrew Jackson of 
Tennessee to defend New Orleans. Jackson was already 
a hero in the Southwest. He had broken the power of 
the Creek Indians at the battle of Horseshoe Bend, on 
a branch of the Alabama, and a little later had stormed 
and captured Pensacola, Florida (18 14). He hastily 
gathered about six thousand riflemen from Kentucky, 
Tennessee, and the regions around, declared martial law, 
and awaited behind his breastworks the approach of 
General Pakenham and his ten thousand veterans. On 
January 8, 18 15, the British assault was made. It was 
over in twenty-five minutes. Pakenham was slain and 
twenty-six hundred of his men were killed and wounded 

'While detained on one of the British ships, Francis S. Key, watch- 
ing with eager interest the bombardment of Fort McHenry, was inspired 
to write " The Star-Spangled Banner." 



Immediate Results of the War 



255 




by the unerring rifles of Jackson's backwoodsmen (§§ 124, 
233, 242). The Americans lost eight killed and thir- 
teen wounded. 
Seldom , if 
ever, had a^ 
British army- 
met such a de- ^^ 
feat with so 
little cost to 
the victors. -^ 
Shortly after ^- 
the news of 
this victory 
reached Wash- 
ington, the 
country was 
rejoicing over 
the treaty of 
peace, signed 
at Ghent, Christmas Eve, 18 14.' The treaty said not a 
word about the causes of the war. Both nations wanted 
to stop fighting. 

IMMEDIATE RESULTS OF THE WAR 

323. A Stronger National Sentiment. From Wash- 
ington to Madison many events had increased the people's 
love for the Union. In spite of the disasters of the war 
they were proud that our militia had defeated the Eng- 
lish veterans and that the deeds of the navy had raised 
the nation in the eyes of Europe. The common efforts 
called forth by the war created sympathy between all 
sections. Faith and confidence in the national govern- 
ment increased except, perhaps, in New England, but 
even this section furnished its share of men and money 
for the war. The great gain in national feeling will be 
seen in the facts which follow. 



JACKSON AT NEW ORLEANS DIRECTING THE DEFENSE 
AGAINST The BRITISH ASSAULT 

Notice the different styles of dress ivorn by the 
riflemen and the soldiers 



1 Coastitution, Article II., Sec. 2. 



256 



The Rule of the Republican Party 



324. Political Parties Change Places; The Hartford 
Convention. From the day of Jefferson's inauguration 
the Federalists, who were strongest in New England, 
opposed the measures of r the national government, 
especially the War of 181 2. During the war delegates 
from three New England states met at Hartford (1814) 
to protect their rights, so they said. But many believed 
their object was to break up the Union. 

The resolutions of this convention showed that the 
Federalists had deserted the teachings of Washington 
and Hamilton, and had taken up the earlier views of 
Jefferson and Madison, which were "strict construction 
and states' rights" (§§ 283, 293). Opposition to the War 

of 1 8 1 2 and the unpopularity 
of the Hartford Convention 
killed the Federalist party. 
In 1816 it had but thirty- 
four electoral votes, and in 
1820 not one. 

In the meantime the other 
party was also changing its 
views. Jefferson and Madison 
could not always follow "strict 
construction." The war could 
be carried on only by taking 
strong national measures, 
and Republicans continued 
to favor such measures after 
the war had closed. 

325. The United States 
Bank Rechartered (1816). 
Jefferson's party had bitterly 
opposed Hamilton's Bank (§ 282). But when the charter 
ran out (1811) his party lacked but one vote of recharter- 
ing it. During the war which followed, only state banks 




JAMES MADISON 

From the pain ting^ by Gilbert Stuart, 

now in the Art Gallery of Bowdoin 

College, Brunswick, Maine 



The Signs of a Nczv National Life 257 

were in existence, and the paper money which they issued 
soon decreased in value and business suffered, for no one 
could tell the exact value of the money in use. 

After the war, Madison recommended, and Congress 
voted, that the United States Bank be chartered again 
for twenty years. It was given all the power of Hamil- 
ton's old bank and more than three times as much capi- 
tal. As before, the central bank was to be in Philadel- 
phia, with branches in different cities. 

326. The Protective Tariff of 1816, From the passing 
of the first tariff (1789), American manufactures had been 
gradually increasing. The Embargo and the War of 1 8 1 2 
helped them still more by cutting off the supply of Euro- 
pean goods. As a greater need for home manufactures 
was thus created, and as shipbuilding and trading with 
Europe were made less profitable, Americans engaged 
in manufacturing more extensively than ever before. 

But as soon as peace came, foreign goods in large 
quantities were shipped to this country. American 
manufacturers immediately called on Congress to give 
them protection by taxing foreign goods brought into 
the country. Accordingly, in 18 16, the first tariff act 
whose main purpose was protection, was passed. This 
law found supporters and opponents in all sections. 
John C. Calhoun spoke and voted for it. The country 
was ambitious to be more independent commercially, 
especially of England. 

A NEW ERA 

THE SIGNS OF A NEW NATIONAL LIFE 

327. Making New States. At the close of the Revo- 
lution a wave of emigration swept westward. Enough 
settlers soon moved from the Carolinas and Virginia 
into Kentucky (1792) and Tennessee (1796) to turn these 
regions into states. Vermont had already been admitted 

16 



558 -i AVt^' l:ra 

(1791) as the fourteenth member of the Union. (See map 
facing page 259.) (Constitution, Article IV., Sec. 3.) 

From New England, emigrants made their way along 
the Mohawk and through western New York into the 
region north of the Ohio, while others from New York, 
Pennsylvania, and Virginia reached the same region by 
crossing the mountains to Pittsburgh or by floating down 
the branches of the Ohio to the main stream. The 
union of these two streams of settlers made the state of 
Ohio (1803). Louisiana, the first fruit of Jefferson's pur- 
chase, became a state in 1812. (See map facing page 238.) 

No sooner was the War of 181 2 over than people 
commenced to move westward along the old routes. 
But from the Carolinas, Tennessee, and Kentucky, set- 
tlers now crossed directly into the region north of the 
Ohio, or moved west or southwest into the unsettled 
territory east of the lower Mississippi. The result was 
that Indiana (18 16), Mississippi (18 17), Illinois (18 18), and 
Alabama (18 19) came into the Union in rapid succession. 
The new states had great influence in making the Union 
stronger. The old states had made the Union and 
looked upon it as their child, but the new states were 
made by the Union and looked upon it as their parent. 

The colors of the full-page map facing page 259 show 
the admission of states by periods — the deep pink 
the original Revolutionary states ; the lighter pink, the 
states made by the westward movement immediately 
following the Revolution — Vermont, New Hampshire, 
Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio ; the lightest pink, the 
states growing out of the War of 1812, in which the 
wave of population built up Louisiana, Mississippi, 
Indiana, Illinois, Alabama, Maine, and Missouri. The 
other colors show the as yet unorganized territories. 

328. The Purchase of Florida (1819). Florida, still 
in the hands of Spain, caused this country much trouble. 



Tilt- Signs of a Neiv National Life 259 

as it harbored large numbers of runaway slaves, pirates, 
and robbers. These joined with the Seminole Indians to 
rob and murder the people of southern Georgia. On the 
approach of troops the Indians and their allies retreated 
into the impenetrable Florida swamps. Finally the 
government sent General Andrew Jackson to protect our 
citizens. He disliked Spain for permitting England to 
build forts in Florida during the War of 1812. Jackson 
invaded Florida and hanged two Englishmen and two 
Indian chiefs. At last, to save further trouble with 
Spain, Florida was purchased for five million dollars. 
(See map facing this page.) 

329. The Missouri Compromise (1820). In the same 
year that Alabama was admitted and Florida bought, 
Missouri asked to be changed from a territory into a 
slave state. Her request was granted but not without 
a struggle which excited the whole country. 

We have already seen that slavery was gradually 
dying out in the North, but that the cotton gin gave it 
new life in the South. Seven of the original thirteen 
states became free, while six remained slave. As the 
Ordinance of 1787 declared all the Northwest Territory 
to be free (§ 258), the South felt that the new states below 
the Ohio River should be made into slave states. In no 
other way could the power of the two sections be made 
equal in the Senate. This equality would have been 
destroyed if Missouri had been admitted in the same year 
as Alabama. The North also opposed Missouri's admis- 
sion, because her territory lay mostly along the western 
border of a free state. (See map facing this page.) For 
two years Congress debated and quarreled over the ques- 
tion, and state legislatures and public meetings, North 
and South, passed resolutions opposing or favoring the 
admission of Missouri. 

Henry Clay feared that the Union might be broken 



2C)0 



A \ru- Iba 



lip, and influenced Congress to settle the quarrel by a 
compromise. The main points in the agreement were: 
(/) The admission of Maine as a free state. \2) The 
admission of Missouri as a slave state.' (j) The exten- 
sion of the southern line of }*Iissouri (36''3o') through the 
remainder of the Louisiura purchase, with the agree- 
ment that territory north of the line should forever 



rffi^ 













-^& 



,fmr~"^' 



HENRY CI.AY ADDRESSING THE IIOrSE OF REPRESEXT A TIN KS 

remain free. (See map facing page 259.) The excite- 
ment soon died away, but the question of slavery was 
to come up again and again. 

330. Origin of the Demand for Internal Improve- 
ments. The farther people ])ressed westward the greater 
grew the demands for easier and more rapid communi- 
cation between the old and the new parts of the countr\-. 
The settlers not ouIn- desired more frequent news from 
the old states, but depended on them ff)r many supplies. 
The merchants in the East wanted to trade with distant 
settlements. New ways of transportation were called for. 

331. The Steamboat. E\en before the War of 181 2 
was over steamboats were pulhng up and down the Ohio 
and Mississippi rivers (181 1), and, as ferrj'boats, made 

' Constitution. Article IV.. Sc-c. 3. 




Sirniius M(.\ INC WEST AI.UNU the CUMHKKUANU HUAl) 

I/ie I'l-iTiniiinff of the deveiofyment of the West 



The Signs of a New National Life 261 

regular trips between New York and the towns in New 
Jersey, and between Philadelphia and Camden. By the 
close of the war at least seven steambcats had been 
launched on the Ohio and the Mississippi. One had 
helped to win the victory at New Orleans by carrying 
ammunition to Jackson, and before the treaty of peace 
was a year old another had steamed from New Orleans 
to Louisville with a cargo of foreign goods. 

332. The Wagon Road. But steamboats could not 
climb mountains, run through dense forests, nor cross 
wide prairies. These things wagons could do. In 1806 
work was begun on a road to extend from Cumberland 
on the Potomac to Wheeling on the Ohio.' By 181 2 two 
hundred thousand dollars had been paid by the nation 
for work on this great highway. The ''Cumberland 
Road" averaged eighty feet in width, and was marked 
each quarter of a mile. It was a " turnpike" road, being 
paved with stone and covered with gravel. It climbed 
the rocky sides of mountains, and crossed chasms by 
immense walls of stonework. Along its winding way 
in the "moving seasons" could be seen long lines of 
emigrant wagons and packhorses making their slow 
way^toward the Ohio. (See illustration facing this page.) 

In 1820, through Clay's influence, a route was sur- 
veyed from the Ohio River through the states of Ohio, 
Indiana, and Illinois to the Mississippi opposite St. Louis. 
This was called the "National Road." In this way 
emigration was encouraged and the parts of the nation 
were brought into closer sympathy. 

333. The Canal. When steamboats from New 
Orleans laden with European goods began to supply 
the Western settlers, Eastern merchants became alarmed 
and called on Congress to build canals between the East 
and the West. Congress refused, because the majority 
believed that the Constitution gave them no power to 

'Constitution, Article I.. Sec. 8. U 7. 



262 



A New Era 




TRAVEL ON THE ERIE CANAL IN 1825 



appropriate money for such improvements, and the work 
was left for states to undertake. 

New York acted promptly. The Erie Canal, from 
Buffalo through the center of the state to Albany, was 

planned, and work 
upon it was begun 
in 18 1 7, under the 
enthusiastic leader- 
ship of Governor 
De Witt Clinton. 
Many men thought 
it impossible to 
build the canal, 
and ridiculed it as 
"Clinton's Big 
Ditch." It was a 
great undertaking 
for that day. The canal crossed swamps, rivers, hills, 
and valleys, and was three hundred and sixty-three miles 
long, forty feet wide, and four feet deep. The depth 
was later increased to seven feet. 

In the autumn of 1825, when the waters of Lake Erie 
poured into the canal, the news was told to New York 
City by the firing of cannon placed five miles apart 
along the whole distance. Governor Clinton and other 
distinguished men with a " fleet " of canal boats began a 
triumphal voyage from Lake Erie to the Atlantic. Cele- 
brations marked their progress, and wherever an impor- 
tant road crossed the canal, the farmers and villagers for 
miles around gathered to witness this strange voyage. 
On November 4th, with the ringing of bells and the 
firing of cannon in the city and surrounded by a fleet, 
Governor Clinton emptied kegs of water from Lake Erie 
into the ocean, to signify that the Great Lakes and the 
Atlantic Ocean were forever united. 



The Signs of a New National Life 



263 



The effects of the canal were far-reaching. The cost 
of freight from Buffalo to Albany was reduced nearly ten- 
fold. As a result the canal became the great highway of 
commerce for goods from the East to the West, and in 
turn for products from the West sent to Eastern or Euro- 
pean markets. Not only was New York City thus made 
the commercial head of America, but all along the line 
of the canal arose flourishing cities which added to the 
wealth and population of the state. 

Both Baltimore and Philadelphia tried to improve their 
connections with the West, but they were hindered by 
the mountains. Several Western states also built canals. 
Before many of them were finished, however, a new 
means of travel and transportation was attracting atten- 
tion. 

334. The Railroad. The first "railroad" in America 
did not give promise of soon carrying "palace cars." The 
first cars resembled huge wagons and ran on wooden rails 
or on wooden rails stripped with iron, and were drawn by 
horses. But necessity called for longer roads and greater 
speed. In 1827 Massachusetts planned a railroad from 
Boston to Albany to connect with the Erie Canal. 




THE FIRST TRAIN OVER THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD IN 1835 



The very next year work was begun on the famous 
Baltimore and Ohio road, the first long railroad in 
America. A great ceremony took place. Charles Carroll 
of Carrollton, aged ninety-three, the last living signer of 
the Declaration of Independence, drove the first spade 
into the ground with these words: "I consider this 



264 



A A^civ Era 



among the most important acts of my life, second only 
to that of signing the Declaration of Independence." 

George Stephenson, an English inventor, had already 
constructed his first locomotive engine, called " Puffing 
Billy " (1814). It was not a great success, but he kept 
at the work until an engine was produced (1825) which 
hauled passengers as well as freight. The year 1829 
witnessed an unsuccessful experiment with an English- 
built engine near Honesdale, Pennsylvania. In 1830, 
however, the South Carolina Railroad successfully ran 
an American engine built by the West -Point Foundry 
Company. The next year an engine was built at York, 
Pennsylvania, for the Baltimore and Ohio road, which 
ran at the then rapid rate of fifteen miles an hour. 

THE BEGINNINGS OF A NATIONAL LITERATURE 

"335- Irving and Cooper. The stirring events follow- 
ing the making of our Constitution and the rapid growth 

of the country were bound, sooner 
or later, to find a place in song 
and story. It was a time to stir 
men to think, to feel, and to act. 
They must write also. Their writ- 
ings are another proof of a new 
national life. Some of the most 
prominent men in American 
letters were born and grew to 
manhood in this generation. 
Washington Irving ( 1 783-1 859), 
our first author to attract much 
attention abroad, was already 
making people smile by the quaint 
fun of his Knickerbockir s History, 
and winning praise for his inter- 
esting stories in the Sketch Book. He soon gave to the 
world the first and most charming account of the life of 




WASHINGTON IRVING 



bv 



After a portrait painted 
( Jiarles Robert Leslie, now in tlie 
Art Gallery of Lenox Library, 
Xeiv York Citv 



The Bi'gin)tiugs of a Naticvial Literat7ire 



265 




Christopher CoUimbiis. At the same time James Feni- 
more Cooper (i 789-1 851) was rising to fame as a writer of 
American novels. Europe had said that our country had 
no material out of which to 
make a novel, but The Spy ( 1 82 1 ), 
with its story of bravery and 
self-sacrifice during the Amer- 
ican Revolution, disproved this 
statement. Other works soon 
followed, each weaving into a 
story some portion of American 
history. Irving and Cooper 
were the first distinguished 
men of letters to take Amer- 
ican subjects for their writings. 

336. A Famous Group. 
Another important group of 
American writers were already 
beginning their work. William Cullen Bryant ( 1 794- 1 878) 
astonished people by writing Thaiiatopsis, at the age of 
seventeen. In 1821 he published a booklet of poems, 
containing among others that beautiful lesson of faith 
expressed in To a Waterfozvl. Ralph Waldo Emerson 
( 1 803-1 882), our first important philosopher, began his 
work in this period. Nathaniel Hawthorne (i 804-1 864), 
another of America's great story-writers, attracted early 
notice through the Twice-Told Tales. 

In the year 1 807 were born two of our most beloved 
poets, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and John Green- 
leaf Whittier. Before his graduation (1825) Longfellow 
had written a number of poems, among them the sweet 
Hymn of the 'Moravian Nuns, in which he celebrates the 
patriotic gift of a banner to Pulaski by the " Nuns " 
of Bethlehem, Pennsylvania (§§220, 239). Whittier, the 
"Quaker" poet, as a farmer's boy of eighteen, wrote the 



JAMES FENIMORE COOPER 

From a rare daguerreotype made 
by Mattheiv B. Brady 



266 A Arw lira 

Exilts Dtparturc. Later he threw his whole energy into 
the anti-slavery cause, and became famed as the " poet 
of freedom." 

Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809-1894), like Longfellow, 
had written successful verses before he received his 
diploma (1829). In the very next year, by the stirring 
poem, Old Ironsides, he saved the ship " Constitution " 
from being broken up as useless (J^ 316), 

337. Patriotic Literature. Besides these teachers of 
the beautiful in life, others were already writing songs to 
stir our national pride and teach a noble love of country. 
Hail Colioiihia (i^gS), Ad(f;fis and Liberty (1798), The Star- 
Spangled Banner (18 14), and The American Flag, are among 
the most important of these songs. In addition, numerous 
popular songs were written to celebrate the victories of 
the War of 181 2. 

With this patriotic literature may be named the great 
speeches of Clay and Webster which were made in 
Congress in defense of the Constitution or on great 
occasions when the people met to celebrate some famous 
event. These addresses were heard and read by thou- 
sands, and helped to strengthen the Union for its great 
day of trial. 

338. History and Art. Akin to this work were the 
writings of our first historians. By 1830 the people were 
reading of the Revolution as told in the lives of its 
heroes, such as Washington, Franklin. Henry, Otis, and 
others, and George Bancroft was planning his great life- 
work, a History of the United States. 

American artists were painting great scenes from 
our history, such as the ''Signing of the Declaration of 
Independence," "Washington Crossing the Delaware," 
and "Perry's Victory on Lake Erie." The country was 
showing its pride in its own history by erecting monu- 
ments to commemorate great events. 



Foreign Relations 



267 



FOREIGN RELATIONS 

339. Lafayette's Last Visit. In 1824 occurred the 
ceremony of laying the corner-stone of the Bunker Hill 
Monument, in which the aged Lafayette took part. 
Lafayette was then on his second and last visit to Amer- 
ica. He visited the old battlefields, greeted his few sur- 
viving comrades, and returned to his native land bearing 
a generous gift from Congress for his noble services, 
and the undying affection of the American people. 

340. The Monroe Doctrine (1823). The Declaration 
of Independence, Washington's Proclamation of Neu- 
trality, and the War of 181 2 showed a growing feeling 
in this country in favor of 
"America for Americans," which 
meant that we were not to mix 
in European affairs or permit 
Europeans to meddle with ours. 

The American and French 
revolutions stirred the people of 
Mexico and South America to 
rebel against Spain. European 
rulers had formed what was called 
the "Holy Alliance" to keep 
down all revolutions, and it was 
expected that they would aid 
Spain in punishing her American 
rebels. In the meantime, Russia, 
which then owned Alaska, was 
pushing down the Pacific coast and threatening our 
claim to the Oregon region (§ 301). 

John Quincy Adams, Secretary of State, saw the dan- 
ger to both North and South America and urged James 
Monroe, who was then serving his second term as 
President (i 821-1825), to protest against any interference 
by European governments in American affairs. This 




JAMES MONROE 
From the painting by Gilbert 
Stuart^ now in the possession of 
T. Jefferson Coolidge, Boston, 

Massachusetts 



268 A AVtc' I-:r(i 

he did in liis celebrated message to Congress. December 
3. 1823, declaring that: "The American continents, by 
the free and independent condition which they have 
assumed and maintained, are henceforth not to be con- 
sidered as subjects for future colonization by any Euro- 
pean powers. ... In the wars of the European pow- 
ers . . . we have never taken any part, nor does it 
comport with our policy so to do. . . . But with the 
governments who have declared their independence, 

. . . and whose independence* we have . . . 
acknowledged, we could not view any interposition, for 
the purpose of oppressing them, ... in any other 
light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly dispo- 
sition toward the United States." 

Before the War of 18 12 such a declaration would have 
amused Europe ; now it was taken seriously, and England 
had even asked us to join her in opposing the Holy Alli- 
ance. A new national spirit had arisen. 

OLD PARTIES WITH NEW NAMES BECOME MORE NATIONAL AND 
MORE DEMOCRATIC 

341. The Era of Good Feeling. The bitter feelings 
of the early political campaigns were passing away. 
The Federalist party was dead, and the Republican 
party had grown more national in its views. John 
Adams and Thomas Jefferson renewed their friendship, 
thus setting a good example to their followers. The 
unpatriotic names of "French party" and " Engli.sh 
party" could be used no more. We had learned by sore 
experience that France and England cared little for our 
interests. 

Monroe was the last of the Revolutionary heroes who 
could be President. Early in his first term he journeyed 
through many states and received everywhere a most 
enthusiastic welcome, but particularly in New England, 
where the opposition to his party had been most bitter. 



Old Parties With Nnv Names 



269 



At Boston a great jubilee was held in his honor, and 
fifty thousand people bade him welcome. Federalists 
of the Hartford Convention and the aged John Adams 
joined in honoring the President. 

Monroe was a peacemaker and everywhere he went 
he pleaded for a united nation. Under his administration 
national brotherhood had a new birth, as was proved by 
his almost unanimous reelection in 1820. 

342. Election of 1824. As the election of 1824 ap- 
proached, many candidates for the Presidency sprang up, 
but they were all members of the 
Republican party, Nev/ England 
presented John Quincy Adams, 
Secretary of State; the West, 
Henry Clay of Kentucky, Speaker 
of the House of Representatives; 
the South, Secretary of War 
William H. Crawford; the South- 
west, the hero of New Orleans, 
Andrew Jackson of Tennessee. 
John C. Calhoun of South Carolina 
was chosen Vice-President, but no 
one received a majority of votes 
for the Presidency, and the election 
for a second time went to the House 
of Representatives, where John 
Quincy Adams was chosen. Henry 
Clay's influence elected Adams. 
Some of Jackson's friends asserted 
that Adams had bribed Clay by 
promising him the position of Secretary of State. This 
was not true, but the slander followed Clay all his life. 

343. Origin of the Whig and the Democratic Parties. 
No sooner was Adams elected than the people began to 
take sides. Those who believed in protection to American 




JOHN QUINCY ADAMS 
From the oriji^inal painting by 
John Singleton Copley^ m llie 
possession of Charles Francis 
Adams, Esq., Boston, and 
loaned to rlie Massachusetts 
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 
Mass. Painted ifi i7qj when 
Mr Adams ivas U.S. Minister 
to 7 he Hague 



270 



A New Era 



industry, in a United States Bank to regulate the money 
of the country, and in Congress voting money for roads 
and canals, gathered around Adams and Clay, as lead- 
ers, and began to call themselves National Republi- 
cans. A little later they took the old Revolutionary 
name, Whig, and followed the inspiring leadership of 
Henry Clay in his struggle for the above measures 
which, taken together, came to be called the "American 
System." 

But people who still held to " strict construction," who 
still favored using state authority whenever possible, and 

believed in 
state banks 
and a low 
tariff, began 
to gather 
around An- 
drew Jackson, 
under the 
name of Dem- 
ocrats. Jack- 
son was their 
natural candi- 



THE LOG CABIN IN WHICH ANDREW JACKSON WAS BORN 

date because he had received more votes than even Adams 
in the election of 1824. The "plain people" liked him 
because he was one of them. He was a hardy frontiers- 
man, had lived in a log cabin, defeated the Indians, 
whipped the British, and was acquainted with poverty 
and toil. His rivals were men who had long held office. 
They were, therefore, well trained to manage public 
affairs, but many believed that they could not sympathize 
with the common people. 

Since the days of Washington the people had grown 
more democratic, especially in the newer states. The 
struggle with the Indian and the wilderness made 




Old Parties With New Names 



271 



everybody live in much the same way in the West, and 
few, from wealth or education, could assume airs of social 
superiority. In all these states, therefore, every man, 
whether he had property or not, could vote, and hold 
office if elected. Even the older states now gave more 
people the right to vote. As a result of this new demo- 
cratic feeling there arose the idea that one man has as 
much right to hold office as another, and that no man 
should retain the same office long. 

344. A New Kind of Campaign (1825-1828). The 
moment Jackson was defeated his friends went to work 
to win the next election. 

They began a new sort of campaign by making it 
appear that the people were calling loudly for Jackson. 
"Jackson committees" were formed in various parts of 
the country to gain support for him by publishing argu- 
ments in his favor, and by get- 
ting up public meetings to 
endorse him for the Presidency. 
The custom of "pole-raising" 
was begun. General Jackson 
was nicknamed "Old Hickory," 
and his supporters raised 
" hickory poles." The support- 
ers of Adams sometimes raised 
"oak poles," but with less show 
and noise. As the campaign 
grew exciting, the people wanted 
to see General Jackson. Hence 
arose the practice of "showing 
the candidate to the people." 

345. Jackson Again at New 
Orleans. The most important 
gathering of the people to see Jackson occurred on the 
anniversary of the battle of New Orleans, January 8, 1828. 




ANDREW JACKSON 

From a painting by Thomas Sully 
which hangs in the rooms of the 
Historical Society of Pennsyl- 
vania at Philadelphia 



272 



A New Era 



The legislature of Louisiana had sent an invitation to 
General Jackson to join the country in celebrating his 
famous victory. From Tennessee to New Orleans his 




A COMMITTEE OF CITIZENS BIDS JACKSON WELCOME 



journey was a triumphal procession. A committee of 
citizens went up the Mississippi to Natchez to meet 
Jackson and. his party on their way down the river. 
Here the state of Mississippi gave her welcome. There 
were processions, dinners, and a ball. 

Then the boats dropped down the river to New 
Orleans. The river near the city was filled with a fleet 
of steamboats packed with people. The housetops and 
the river banks were crowded. Visitors from far away 
were there. Distinguished men, committees with greet- 
ings from different states, veterans who had stood with 
Jackson when the British charged, all were present. 
The ringing of bells, the firing of cannon, and waves of 
human huzzas were overwhelming. For four days the 
celebration went on. 

346. Adams Defeated. The popularity of Jackson 
discouraged the friends of Adams. They urged the 



Old Parties With Netv Names 273 

President to use his influence and authority to help his 
reelection. But he steadily refused to do any "election- 
eering." He firmly believed that the office of President 
is too high to be used to turn men out of office simply 
because they worked for Jackson. This was a noble 
example which many another President could have fol- 
lowed for the good of the country. But Jackson was 
triumphantly elected. He received more than twice as 
many electoral votes as Adams. 

347. A New Kind of President (1829). Jackson's 
election showed that the old kind of President with his 
dignity and ceremony was gone, and that plainer and 
more democratic ways were to rule in government. 
Jackson felt that the people had put him in the Presi- 
dent's chair to look after their interests. They felt that 
his election had saved the country, somehow, from a 
great danger, and they came in great crowds to see him 
inaugurated, filling the streets and shouting for Jackson. 
They pushed into the White House, climbed upon the 
fine furniture, and, in the mad rush to see the new 
President, spilled the pails of drink brought for their 
refreshment. 

Some came for a more selfish purpose. The cam- 
paign "worker" came to look for his reward. In a short 
time old and tried men, who had served their country 
since Washington and Jefferson put them in office, were 
turned out without warning, and their places were given 
to men who had worked for Jackson's election. In one 
year he dismissed over seven hundred men, many more 
than all the other Presidents up to that time. 

348. The "Spoils System." Jackson changed the 
rule of Washington and other Presidents, never to 
appoint or remove a man for party reasons. He honestly 
thought it right to reward his political friends, but in 
so doing he introduced into national politics the " spoils 

19 



274 -^ -^<^^^ ^'■^ 

system." The business of the government was injured. 
Men who could not get office before, now became party 
workers in order to be appointed postmasters, collectors, 
or to some other office. The ablest men in the nation, 
among them Clay, Webster, and Calhoun, opposed Jack- 
son's policy, but the people only supported him the more. 

349. Nominating Conventions and Platforms. The 
campaign of 1832 is noted for giving rise to national 
"nominating conventions" and to party "platforms" or 
written statements of party views. After Washington 
retired, candidates had been nominated by members of 
Congress holding a "caucus." But this method was too 
undemocratic and died out after IMonroe's time. 

The Anti-Masonic party, which aimed to keep Free 
Masons out of office, held the first national nominating 
convention in 1831. The National Republicans soon 
after met in Baltimore and unanimously nominated 
Henry Clay for President. In a few months the young 
men of the party met, endorsed Clay's nomination, and 
made the first platform ever issued by a national con- 
vention. This platform declared in favor of "protection 
to American industry," a system of "internal improvvs- 
ments," and denounced the removal of men from office 
"for a mere difference of political opinion." Clay and 
his party were strong defenders of the United States 
Bank. 

The followers of Jackson also held a convention, 
endorsed him for President, and named Martin Van 
Buren for Vice-President. Jackson won an overwhelm- 
ing victory and at once attacked the United States Bank. 

350. Jackson Destroys the Bank. There had long 
been a feeling, strongest in the new states, against corpo- 
rations like the United States Bank. Many feared that 
such great companies would injure the poor man. Jack- 
son sympathized with this feeling. Soon after his first 



Old Parties With New Names 275 

election he concluded that the United States Bank was 
unconstitutional, and declared it ought not to be 
rechartered. Later he vetoed a bill for a new charter. 
After reelection Jackson declared that the people, by 
their votes, had authorized him to destroy the bank. He 
removed the government money from the bank (1833), 
and injured its reputation. In 1836 the charter ran out 
and the United States Bank was again dead (§ 325). 
.^ 351. Wildcat Banking, Speculation, and Panic 
1[r832-i837). Meanwhile state banks were springing up 
everywhere. Certain of these were called "pet banks," 
because Jackson chose them to receive the government 
money. The national debt now being fully paid, Con- 
gress voted to distribute its surplus money among the 
different states. The public money was thus placed 
where persons could easily borrow it. This, with the 
"paper money" which the banks issued, made it easier 
to obtain money than ever before in the history of the 
country. 

It seemed that Jackson was making it easy for the 
common people to improve their condition. Persons 
eager to grow rich began to buy government lands, 
which, by law, were sold for one dollar and twenty-five 
cents per acre. If the lands were located near towns, 
along the routes of proposed railroads or canals, they 
quickly rose in value. The prices of other things began 
to rise. Everybody was borrowing — individuals, com- 
panies, and even states — to buy and sell and grow rich. 

But the crisis soon came. Jackson found that the 
government was being paid for its lands in the paper 
money of the state banks. What if these banks should 
fail and their money become worthless? Jackson acted 
quickly and issued his famous "Specie Circular" (1836), 
which ordered land officers to receive only gold and 
silver for government land. This order created a sudden 



27^1 



.1 New Era 



demand for gold and silver. There were noi gold and 
silver enough to meet the demand. People who had gone 
deeply in debt were ruined. Bank after bank failed, 
"pet banks" and all; business houses became bankrupt, 
factories closed their doors, railroad building stopped, 
and thousands of laborers were thrown out of work. 
The panic of 1837 was the greatest financial disaster 
which had yet fallen on America. 

352. The Independent Treasury. The poor suffered 
great hardships during the winter following the panic. 

"Bread riots" 
occurred in 
New York 
City. Flour 
rose to eleven 
dollars per 
barrel, and 
corn to a 
dollar and 
fifteen cents 
per bushel. 
The people 
called loudly 
for help from 
the govern- 
ment, but for a time even the national government had 
not money enough to pay its officers. 

Meanwhile, Martin Van Buren, Jackson's chief sup- 
porter, had been elected President (1837-1 841). He called 
an extra session of Congress and recommended that the 
United States establish a treasury of its own for the safe 
keeping of its money, instead of turning it over to banks 
of any kind. But the people did not favor this plan 
because it gave them no immediate help. The Inde- 
pendent Treasury bill was not passed till 1840. 




BREAD RIOTS IN N'FW YORK CITY 



07cl Parties With Nczv Name. 



277 



As the President opposed any plan for helping the 
people to escape from their own unwise acts, he naturally 
became unpopular. 
<^ 353- The Campaign of 
1840. The distress caused 
by the panic and the unpopu- 
larity of Van Buren worked 
to the advantage of the Whig 
party. In 1837 the Ohio Whig 
convention nominated Gen- 
eral William Henry Harrison 
for the Presidency. In 1838 
thousands upon thousands 
greeted him upon his famous 
battlefield of Tippecanoe (§ 3 1 4). 
Later the Whig national con- 
vention at Harrisburg (1840) ' 
made him its candidate, 
and this action was ratified ^ "'^^"^ ^'^^ '^"f ^/, ^ . , 

from a portrait painted bv Daniel 

shortly after by a national ^'^"''^'/'f'l ^^r -'^j:- ^'^>' ,^":7"hf"^ 

■^ J presented by I an Buren to the Statt, 

convention of young Whigs. Library at Albany, New York 

A campaign more enthusiastic and more exciting than 
even the Jackson campaigns was thus opened. (See 
illustration facing page 278). Harrison was a popular 
hero. He had lived on the frontier in a log cabin 
whose " latchstring was always out." He had beaten the 
Indians, and had overwhelmed Proctor and Tecumseh 
on Canadian soil. He was now a plain farmer living in 
Ohio, and was the people's candidate. Van Buren, on 
the other hand, was called the " little aristocrat." It was 
said that he had always held office, and lived in a 
" palace," and rode in a fine carriage, while the laborer 
was without work and the business man was a bankrupt. 

Such demonstrations, processions, and barbecues had 
not yet been seen, nor had so many great orators ever 




278 



A New Era 



before been heard in a campaign. But the Democrats 
had no orators equal to Clay and Webster, and no cam- 
paign songs as stirring as those of the Whigs. The 
Whigs further aroused the patriotic sentiment of the 
country by holding meetings on battlefields. The largest 

was the Bunker Hill jubilee. 
More than one hundred thou- 
sand people, many of them 
from distant states, joined 
in the demonstration. 

A Van Buren paper sneer- 
ingly said that if General 
Harrison were given a log 
cabin and a barrel of cider he 
would gladly give up his wish 
to be President and remain 
in Ohio. The Whigs imme- 
diately adopted these two 
objects as party emblems, 
and from that time on the 

From a tainting bv Hoyt, now in the loo- pa^-^i•n nnrl tViP l^flrrel nf 
roonisoftlie Massdclmsetts Historical ^Og Caom aUQ inC DdrrCi OI 

Society, Boston, Massachusetts cidcr bcCamC pOWCrful argu- 

ments in favor of Harrison. The election gave the 
Whigs their first great victory. 

354. What the Election of Harrison Meant. Among 
other things Harrison's election showed that the com- 
mon man was taking a deeper interest in politics than 
ever before and that the successful candidate for office 
must win his support. 

The Whigs themselves now talked much as Jackson 
did when he declared that the people had commanded 
him to destroy the bank. Henry Clay, in the Senate, 
speaking against the Independent Treasury bill, declared 
that " the nation wills the repeal of the measure, and the 
nation commands the repeal of the measure, and the 




WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON 




Tim aumkeninsr of the political forces oj the people 



Industrial and Social Development 279 

nation decrees the repeal of the measure, and the repre- 
sentatives of nineteen states were sent here instructed 
to repeal it." 

But in spite of their victory, the Whigs failed to 
restore the bank or to carry their other measures. Har- 
rison died within a month after becoming President, and 
Tyler, who succeeded him, 'quarreled with the Whig 
leaders and vetoed their bills. 

355. Dorr's Rebellion (1842); Anti-Rent Riots. 
Other events showed that the people were waking up to 
their real power. Rhode Island was still governed partly 
by her old charter, which prevented fully two-thirds of 
her men of proper age from voting because they were 
not landholders. The non-voters made a new constitu- 
tion and elected Thomas W. Dorr governor. The old 
voters objected to this action and elected their own 
governor. Both parties flew to arms, but on the approach 
of United States troops Dorr's men deserted him. Dorr 
was tried and condemned for treason, but was afterward 
pardoned. A new constitution gave the majority more 
rights, and public excitement quieted down. 

At the same time the farmers along the Hudson who 
were living on lands owned by the descendants of the 
patroonswere refusing to pay their "rent" (§ 128). From 
colonial times they had given the patroons each year a 
part of what they had raised. But now the '* anti-renters" 
resisted even the officers of the law sent to collect the 
rent. The trouble continued for several years, but was 
finally settled by allowing the tenant farmers to bu)'' out 
the rights of the proprietors. 

INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 

356. Expansion in Area and Growth in Population. 

From Washington's election to 1850 the United States 
had a wonderful growth. During this time the area was 
multiplied more than three and a half times, and the 

' Constitution, Article II., Sec. i, IT 6. 2 Article IV., Sec. 4 
3 Mace, § 96. 



28o 



A New Rra 



population nearly eight times. In 1860 more than thirty- 
one million people were living in thirty-two states and 
nine territories. Two states and one territory (Wash- 
ington) had been organized on the Pacific coast. ' 

American cities showed tremendous gains. New 
York was now the great commercial center, and had a 



^"i 



''jiiJ^"il.iiiii- 



FORT DEARBORN, CHICAGO, A -^ \ I I^nNTIER POST 

population of over eight hundred thousand, while Chi- 
cago, only a frontier post in 1830, was already giving 
proof, with its one hundred thousand inhabitants, of the 
great city it was destined to become. Ten cities had a 
population ranging from one hundred thousand to half a 
million. But only three of these were in the slave states, 
and two of them, Baltimore and St. Louis, drew much of 
their strength from the free states. 

The North had double the population of the South, 
although the two sections had not been far apart in the 
number of inhabitants in 1790. This difference was due 
partly to the fact that foreign immigrants had settled 
mainly in the North, where there was no slave labor, 
and where occupations were more numerous. 

357, Character and Effect of the New European 
Immigration. From colonial times America had been the 
land of promise to the poor and oppressed of all nations, 

' Constitution. Article IV., Sec, 3. 



Industrial and Social Development 



281 



but the great majority of the colonists, however, were 
English by birth or descent, and the people who settled 
the new states down to 1820 were nearly all from the 
older states. 

But from 1830 to i860 immigrants came mainly from 
Ireland and Germany. Repeated "potato famines" drove 
large numbers of Irish to America. The majority were 
Catholics, and in their ways of living and worship dif- 
fered much from most Americans at that time. Germans^ 
anxious to improve their condition, or oppressed by 
despotic governments, also came in increasing numbers. 
They, too, brought many strange customs. For the first 
time in our history immigrants began to settle in the 
eastern cities and towns instead of going west to take 
up farms. 






-Ji-^>-= 




ST. LOUIS IN 18 



The arrival of so many thousand foreigners fright- 
ened people into believing that American institutions 
were in danger. Later we shall see the etfects of this 
fear upon politics. (§ 413). 

358. A Long Wait for New States. After Missouri 
came into the Union (1821) many settlers stopped to 



282 A New Era 

occupy the ricli prairie lands and build up the towns east 
of the Mississippi. Laborers, farmers, and mechanics 
were more content to remain in the older states, which 
were rapidly developing their resources by building 
steamboats, canals, railroads, and factories. 

The result was that fifteen years passed before other 
states were admitted. Arkansas (1836), the last slave 
state below the Missouri Compromise line, and Michigan 
(1837), a free state, were the next to enter the Union.' 

359. Mormon Migration. Before other states were 
made a group of sturdy people started westward. Joseph 
Smith organized (1830) the Church of Latter-Day Saints, 
or Mormons, proclaiming that he had received revelations 
from God, and that an angel had revealed the hiding 
place of the plates from which he translated the Book 
of Mormon. From Palmyra, New York, the Mormons 
later moved to Ohio, thence to Missouri, and afterwards 
( 1 839) to Nauvoo, 111. Their religious claims aroused the 
enmity of their neighbors. This led to harsh treatment 
and to the murder of their leader, Joseph Smith (1844). 

The Mormons, in search of religious freedom, began, 
under Brigham Young, a long, dangerous journey into 
the unsettled West. They toiled over a desert region 
until they reached the Rocky Mountains. Up the eastern 
slope they climbed, and over the summit, and on till they 
reached Great Salt Lake. Here (1847) they began the 
work of making homes. Hundreds of flourishing towns 
and villages attest their courage and industry. They 
were among the first to show the people of America the 
value of irrigation. 

360. The Balance of Power Broken; The South 
Seeks Spanish Territory. The increase in the number of 
foreigners, the interest aroused by the Texan Revolution 
and the Mexican War (§390), and the discovery of gold 
in California (^397) gave rise to a new tide of emigration. 

1 Constitution, Article IV., Sec. 3. 



Industrial and Social Development 283 

As a result Florida and Texas came into the Union in 
1845, and broke the balance of power existing between 
the free and the slave states, but the admission of 
Iowa (1846) and Wisconsin (1848) restored it. This 
balance was again and forever destroyed by the 
admission of California (1850), Minnesota (1858), and 
Oregon (1859) (§ 389). * 

Southern leaders had already been looking around for 
new territory for slavery in Cuba and Central America. 
Efforts were made to buy Cuba ; when Spain refused to 
sell, secret expeditions were formed to take possession of 
it and also of parts of Central America, but they all failed. 

Our ministers to England, France, and Spain held a 
meeting (1854) and sent forth a declaration, called the 
Ostend Manifesto, which asserted that the United States 
ought to obtain Cuba by purchase if possible, but by 
force if necessary. 

361. Growth in Morals and Religion. This period 
was also remarkable for an improvement in the manners 
and conduct of the people of all classes, and particularly 
for the rise of a kindlier feeling toward unfortunate 
people. The result was an increase in the number of 
asylums for homeless children, for the aged, and the 
insane. Prisons were kept cleaner and the prisoners were 
better cared for. Instead of being kept in idleness and 
receiving frequent and cruel whippings, they were put to 
labor, and taught useful trades. Then, too, the absurd 
and often unjust practice of putting men in prison for 
debt passed away (§ 277). 

Drunkenness was more common then than at present, 
and strong drink was used at all social gatherings. It was 
not thought improper for even ministers of the gospel 
to drink. To decrease this evil, the Washingtonian 
temperance movement sprang up. Drinkers pledged 
themselves to reform, and others promised to aid them 



Constitution, Article IV., Sec. 3. 



284 



A New Era 



by their good example. Gradually public opinion came 
to look upon drinking as an evil. 

The great church organizations followed population 
to the westward, and the new communities were not long 
without a preacher. Among the scattered settlements 
of the frontier, religious gatherings called "camp-meet- 
ings " were often held. Families left their homes and 
journeyed to the place of meeting in wagons or on horse- 
back, carrying with them provisions and tents. Large 
-^^r^-v- U "-"-'' crowds gathered 

'^i*!*- j-/sivA,< -. to listen to the 
preaching which 
\ , ■.*^:'■J.:^Vl■ :'"^^>^W:^i^S^^^^'''^^L'~". went on day and 

ht. Frequently 

e speakers at 

f " K'^J^s-S^ -' ' ' ' inese meetinofs 



^\^.:il[f^l.'V_f^#M"->^ ^, - ^ the: 

mm 



were men of na- 
tional reputation. 
Unfortunately 
in this period the 
churches, like 
other organizations, were badly disturbed by the ques- 
tion of slavery. Members of particular congregations 
did not dispute about slavery so much as did the minis- 
ters from the North and the South when they came 
together in national meetings. The dispute grew so 
bitter that between 1840 and 1S50 the Baptist and the 
Methodist churches, and later the Presbyterian, split into 
northern and southern branches. 

362. Growth of the Means of Education. The com- 
ing of so many foreigners aroused the fear that they 
would do harm to American ideas and customs, and would 
finally change our ways of living by bringing in the 
strange manners and customs of European nations. But 
many of the older immigrants learned to read American 




FRONTIER CAMP MEETING 




Industrial and Social Development 285 

books and newspapers, and were soon interested in the 
politics of the country. 

The children of the foreigners became Americans the 
more easily because by i860 the Northern states had well 
established public-school systems. The new states had 
also been encouraged to provide public schools by large 
grants of land made by Congress. Some wisely used the 
money for this purpose, but others wasted theirs in 
internal improvements. 

Unfortunately, the Southern states were behind in 
free public education. They had many academies, how- 
ever, where parents might pay for the education of their 
children. From 1850 to i860 the number of colleges 
established in the South grew rapidly, although this 
section was still behind the North in old and high-grade 
colleges. 

363. Other Means of Education. Other influences 
helped the schools to make people more intelligent. The 
daily and weekly newspapers for the first time reached 
millions of readers. Monthly magazines, like Harpers , 
the Atlantic, and the Sonthern Literary Messenger, were 
carrying good literature into thousands of homes. The 
poets and prose writers born in the early part of the 
century were sending forth their best work (§335). James 
Russell Lowell in his Bigloiv Papers and other writings 
showed that another great author had appeared to rank 
with Bryant, Longfellow, Whittier, and Holmes. Joined 
to these influences was the " Lyceum," or public lecture 
course, which brought the people face to face with speakers 
and orators whose earnestness and eloquence made people 
read and think on important questions. 

364. Inventions and the Increase of Machinery. 
Thia was also a time of wonderful inventions and of 
their use in manufacture, transportation, and farming. 
Men on the farm and in the shop could do more work 



286 



A Neiv Era 



with machinery, and do it easier and cheaper, than ever 
before. This made their services more valuable and 

their products less expen- 
sive. Thus inventions in- 
creased the skill of the 
laborer and added greatly 
to the comfort of living. 
The more costly and the 
more complex the ma- 
chine, the greater the care 
and skill demanded in 
using it. 

Never before during any ten years had so many inven- 
tions and improvements been made as from 1840 to 1850. 
In the five years from 1855 to i860 more patents on inven- 
tions were taken out than for the previous fifty years. 
Since the slave did not use machinery skillfully, and the 
planter devoted his time mainly to raising cotton, rice, 
and tobacco, the North benefited most by these inventions. 




Prom a photograph 
CUTTING GRAIN WITH THE SICKLE 







"Wl^i^^^^^^feg',^ 








'Z^^f^-' 




I;-' 









-;3^**>..-'..i 



Prom ft pbotggrapb 

FARMERS CRADLi... i::;. V.llLAi 

365. The Harvester. In the early days when the 
farmer cut his grain with the sickle the work was slow 
and difficult. With this little instrument in one hand 



Industrial and Social Th'7'ctopmcnt 



287 



and a bunch of grain seized by the other he cut his slow 
way across the field. What a revolution in reaping 
when the cradle came into use ! Now with one vigorous 
swing the farmer could gather a whole sheaf ! 

But the king of the harvest had not yet come. Cyrus 
Hall McCormick of Virginia was the inventor of the grain 
harvester. For twenty years he worked at the problem. 



CT 



^K-^f- 



"J ^3 










^^C^ . lift 1/ 






THE ORIGINAL MCCORMICK HARVESTER 






From a photograph 



In 1 83 1 he patented a harvester. But his own neighbors 
smiled and shook their heads, and the people of other 
states would not buy the new machine. Finally the 
inventor himself had to go to the farmers of the great 
prairie states of the northwest and urge them to try his 
harvester. In 185 1 this reaper excited widespread atten- 
tion at the World's Fair in London. After trials had 
been made in English fields the London papers declared 
that this machine was " worth to the farmers of England 
the whole cost of the exhibition." 

366. The Threshing Machine. In the early days 
farmers "beat out" the grain by the use of a flail, or by 

' Constitution, Article I., Sec. 8, f S. 



288 



A A^cu> Era 



horses tramping over the bundles of grain arranged in 
a circle upon the hard earth or upon the barn floor. The 
grain was separated from the chaff by throwing it into 
the air in order that the wind might blow the chaff 
away. But this mode of separating and cleaning was too 
slow, and the " threshing machine " soon came. At first 
it was a revolving cylinder full of teeth and was turned 
by horses. The straw had still to be carried away by hand- 
rakes, and the grain and chaff were separated by a new 
machine, called the "winnowing mill," which consisted 
of a number of wooden fans fastened to a revolving 
cylinder, and a series of sieves through which the grain 
passed. This machine was turned by hand. Finally 
the '* separator" was invented by uniting both machines. 
It not only separated the grain from the chaff, but also 
carried away the straw. The farmer could now produce 

more grain at less expense than 
ever before. 

367. Growth in the Coal and 
Iron Industry. Coal had been 
discovered on the Illinois and 
Wabash rivers before the Revo- 
lution, but anthracite or hard 
coal was not known until it was 
accidentally found in Pennsyl- 
vania (1783). In addition to its 
stores of hard and soft coal, this 
state was also found to be rich 
\i^\ in iron ore, and iron mines and 
■—^^ mills were early in operation. 

In the period from 1830 to 
i860 Pennsylvania became the 
great center of the coal and iron industries. By 1848 
ten canals and twenty-five railroads had been built to 
carry coal and iron away from the places where nature 




FLAILING GRAIN 



InduJtrial and Social Development 



289 



had hidden them. In our time thousands of carloads are 
carried every day in all directions from the mines. All 
this has made Pennsylvania the second state in the Union 




y' -^^ 



MAKING STEEL PLATES AT PITTSBURGH 

in population, and Pittsburgh, the center of the iron and 
coal trade of the United States. The iron and coal 
industry of the South was, as yet, little developed. 

368. Progress in Manufacturing. It was a great step 
forward when, as a result of using machinery, manufac- 
turing came to be done in factories instead of in small 
shops and in private houses. (See § 273.) Instead of the 
old spinning wheel, which made but one thread at a time 
and which required one person to run it, came a new one 
which spun hundreds of threads at once and yet required 
the care of only one person. Instead of the hand loom, 
with a single shuttle which produced but a few yards 
of cloth each day, came the power loom with which one 
person could weave many yards in a few hours. The- 
result was a remarkable increase in the manufacture of 
cotton and woolen goods. 

At first machinery of all kinds was driven by water 
power. This made it necessary to locate factories along 
water courses. Still another step forward was taken 

20 



KJU 



■I .Vrw hra 




HOWE'S FIRST SEWING 
MACHINE MODEL 



when steam began to be used in driving machinery. It 
not only meant greater power, but that almost all towns 
and cities could have mills and 
factories. 

369. The Sewing Machine. 
The burden of woman's toil was 
soon made lighter. Already a 
number of men had tried their skill 
at inventing a sewing machine, with 
partial success. Only after years of 
toil and poverty did the successful 
inventor, Elias Howe, receive his 
first patent (1846). 
Soon several inventors had made sewing machines 
and a number of firms were manufacturing them. They 
are now being used not only in the home, but in all shops 
where the needle is employed. As the sewing machine 
came into the home, the spinning wheel and the hand 
loom were disappearing from the thickly settled districts. 
370. Our First World's Fair. In the year 1853, for 
the first time in our history, the nations of the world 
joined the United States in a great exhibition of prod- 
ucts in the Crystal Palace, New York. The Americans 
were most pleased with 
that part of the fair 
which showed the in- 
ventions of the differ- 
ent countries, for it 
proved that the United 
States, although a very- 
new country, would 
soon be leading the 
rest of the world in 
making labor-saving machinery. This exhibition, like 
all "world's fairs," taught many useful lessons and 




A FULL-RIGGED SAILING VESSEL 



Industrial and Social Development 



291 



helped to encourage peace and commerce among the 
nations. 

371. Growth of Railroads. Railroad building took 
on new life in this period. By 1842 one could travel by- 
railroad from Boston to Buffalo, but it was ten years later 
before Chicago had railroad connections with eastern 
cities. 

The year 1857 was an important one in the history of 
railroads, for in this year Chicago and St. Louis were con- 
nected, and the Baltimore and Ohio road reached the 
latter city. 

By 1 860 the larger cities were bound together by ties 
of iron over which was carried a constantly increasing 



:A.. 




THE OCEAN STEAMSHIP 



trade. Unfortunately only a few railroads ran north and 
south, a fact which hindered friendly intercourse where 
it was most needed. 

372. Ocean Steamships. Meanwhile the steamboat 
had been grovv/'ing into the steamship. As early as 1819 
a small vessel, the " Savannah," carrying both sails and 
steam, had crossed the Atlantic. Later steam machinery 
was improved and coal was tried as fuel, and in 1837 the 
" Sirius" and the " Great Western" both crossed the ocean 
without sails. 

England and America competed for superiority in 
steamships. Parliament gave aid to the " Cunard Line " 
and Congress to the " Collins Line." Each line of boats 



292 



A N'ria Era 



strove to shorten the time from New York to Liverpool. 
Now a Cunarder and now one of the Collins Line held 
the record. Year by year the trip to Europe became 
shorter, more comfortable, and less expensive, until the 
trip is now a holiday visit on board a floating palace. 

Thus 'it not only became easier for Americans to see 
Europe, and for foreign emigrants to reach this country, 
but an immense American commerce with all parts of 
the world was made possible. 

373. Commodore Perry Visits Japan. In 1854 an 
event occurred which brought America, for the first 
time, into friendly relations with the far East. In that 
year Commodore Matthew C. Perry, w4th a fleet of war 
vessels, was sent on an expedition to Japan. Up to that 
time the Japanese had not admitted foreigners to their 
country, even for purposes of trade. But after the brave 

Perry and his gallant sailors 
had visited Japan, treaties' of 
friendship and commerce were 
made, and from that time the 
Japanese and Americans have 
been good friends, and Japan has 
rapidly adopted the ways and 
customs of the western world. 
374. The Telegraph. From 
the sailboat to the steamboat 
and from the stagecoach to the 
railroad were mighty steps for- 
ward. Yet distant places were 
to be brought still nearer to- 
gether. The invention of the 
"magnetic telegraph" was 
chiefly due to vSamuel F. B. Morse, although he was aided 
by the skill of Alfred Vail, in whose father's shop the 
instrument was greatly improved (1837). 




SAMUEL F. B. MORSE 

Prom a photograph taken by Abra 

ham Eogardus, New York City 



' Conslitiitiiin, Arti< If II., Sec. 2, 



Industrial and Social Development 



293 



On January 6, 1838, over three miles of wire, was 
sent the message : "A patient waiter is no loser," But 
neither the United States nor the nations of Europe 
would give Morse aid until after four years of extreme 
poverty he was voted (1843) thirty thousand dollars by 
Congress for a line from Wash- 
ington to Baltimore. This was 
completed in 1844, and was the 
first regular telegraph line in 
the world. 

Lines were built to connect the 
larger cities, and by 1 860 every 
state in the Union was using ^ 
the invention. The nations of 
Europe, led by Germany (1847), 
rapidly adopted the Morse 
system. 

375. The Atlantic Cable. 
Experiments were already on 
foot to " send news under the 
water." As early as 1848 a "cable" connected New 
York and Jersey City. Commodore Maury, who had 
carefully studied the bottom of the Atlantic, suggested 
to Cyrus W. Field the idea of linking the Old and New 
Worlds by a submarine telegraph. By the aid of busi- 
ness men in this country and England, and by an appro- 
priation of money from Congress, the first cable began 
to ''uncoil" in August, 1857. After more than three 
hundred miles had been laid, it broke. This accident 
cost five hundred thousand dollars. Again the attempt 
was made and again the cable broke. 

But in 1858 Field succeeded in laying his cable 
beneath the ocean, and Queen Victoria and President 
Buchanan exchanged greetings. A month later, while 
New York City was giving the conqueror of the Atlantic 




CYRUS 

From a photograph by Elliott and 
Fry, London 



CYRUS W. FIELD 



294 -^ New Era 

a great ovation, the cable again parted. But Field never 
faltered, and in 1866 his efforts were finally crowned 
with success. America and Europe were henceforth to 
dwell near each other. 

376. Differences Between the North and South (1850- 
1860). In both sections were farmers, merchants, manu- 
facturers, and mechanics, but in the Southern states the 
farmer or planter with slaves was still the man with the 
most wealth. He possessed the most influence in making 
the laws and in managing the government, and his family 
occupied the highest position in social life (§ 146). 

Not only were the planters the men of power in their 
own states, but they were also the most prominent 
Southern men in national politics. This was true in 
spite of the fact that the non-slaveholders were in a great 
majority in all the Southern states. While there were 
more farmers in the North than merchants, manufac- 
turers, or lawyers, the merchants and manufacturers 
were generally the most wealthy and the lawyers most 
successful in getting high office. 

With the rapid growth of all sorts of manufactures, 
the number of skilled mechanics in the North also 
increased very rapidly. As the Northern farms were 
smaller than the Southern plantations, there were more 
farmers than planters. The number of white people in 
the North was much greater than in the South. 

Although the South took pride in her cotton, tobacco, 
sugar, rice, and hemp, the products raised on Northern 
farms were worth more than all these put together. 
Although cotton was raised in the South, the North 
had more than three times as many cotton mills as 
the South. During the year i860 it is estimated that in 
manufactured products the North produced five times 
as much as the South and had nearly three times as 
many banks. 



^etioh of Sectional Dispute anti W(it 



THE GROWTH OP SECTIONAL FEELING 

GROWING DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE FREE AND 
THE SLAVE STATES 

377. The Root of the Trouble. The first serious 
disputes over slavery arose in the Constitutional Con- 
vention, but they were settled by compromises (§ 263). 
No other collision occurred 
till the Missouri question 
alarmed the country (§ 329). 
These events, however, 
were only on the surface 
and were due to deeper 
causes. 

Because of differences in 
soil and climate and in their 
systems of labor the North 
and South, as we have seen, 
had been growing so dif- 
ferent in every way that 
they could no longer keep from discussing it in news- 
papers and in Congress. 

Whatever appeared to be helpful to one section now 
began to be looked upon as harmful to the other. 
Especially was this true of the tariff. 

378. The South Attacks the Tariff. The planters 
had to import large quantities of manufactured goods 
from Europe and from the North (§146). For these 
they had to spend a large part of the sum received 
for their yearly shipments of raw cotton. Some North- 
ern men had opposed, while some Southern men had 
favored, the tariff of 18 16 (§ 326). But the South could not 

(295) 




^1 IW.^^- 



Y^V 



From a photograph 



SOUTHERN INDUSTRY 



296 



TJic GroivtJi of Sectional Feeling 



take advantage of the tariff by building factories and 
making its own cotton goods. If the South had been 
able to establish manufactures of her own, she would 
have benefited in many ways. Her people would have 














1 HERN IN1)LSTK\ 

Miii;iii .; jdfrics from southern coicon ' 



had many other profitable occupations besides farming. 
Her cities and towns would have grown larger and 
richer, and the planter would have received better prices 
for his cotton and for his other products. But the slave 
could not be taught to handle machinery skillfully, and 
the money required to build factories and buy costly 
machines was already invested in large landed estates and 
in negroes. Hence this section wms more injured than 
benefited by the imposing of duties on imported articles. 
Opposition by Southern Congressmen to an increase 
of the tariff in 1824, and their protests that the high tariff 
of 1828 was unconstitutional, showed that the Southern 
people were beginning to look at taxes upon imports as 
intended to favor other sections at the expense of the 
South. " We buy dear and sell cheap," they said. But in 
the North, and especially in New England, the tariff had 
constantly grown in favor, and in 182.S Daniel Webster, 
for many years the most powerful opponent of the 
tariff, became its defender because Massachusetts had 
become a manufacturing state. 



Differences Between the Free and Slave States 297 

How was the South to fight the tariff alone ? The 
answer was found in the ** Kentucky and Virginia Resohi- 
tions" (§ 293). These resohitions had hinted at " nulli- 
fication" by the states as the remedy, if Congress passed 
an unconstitutional law. But the people, since the War 
of 1 8 1 2, had almost forgotten nullification. We shall now 
see how the enemies of the tariff revived this doctrine. 

379. The Webster-Hayne Debate (1830). The fight 
against the tariff began in earnest when Vice-President 
Calhoun sent a long argument, called the ''South Carolina 
Exposition," to the legislature of that state, declaring 
that the Constitution is only an agreement between the 
states as equal partners, and that any state may nullify 
an unconstitutional act of 
Congress (1828). 

Senator Hayne, a distin- 
guished son of South Caro- 
lina, in a speech in the 
Senate, made a brilliant 
defense of the doctrine of 
nullification, and severely 
attacked New England. 
Men again thought the Union 
in danger, and Daniel Web- 
ster felt called on to reply. 
On the day set for the reply 
the Senate overflowed. 
There was not even stand- 
ing room on the floor or in 
the galleries. People had 
come from distant cities, 

ana grave benatOrS were p^om a daguerreotype taken in 1850 by 

lost in the crowd of ladies." ^■■^- ^''^"^^ of Boston 

How grand was the scene when Webster arose ! 
With his massive forehead towering above deep-set but 




H^.\^ 



DANIEL WEBSTER 



298 



Tlie Growth of Srctioiial Feeling 



powerful eyes ; with broad shoulders and a commanding 
voice, Webster stood forth, a striking figure. All paid 
closest attention, while he spoke for hours, linking his 
arguments into a chain that could not easily be broken. 

It is one of the great speeches in 
the English language, and "will 
live as long as the Union itself." 
Its closing words, " Liberty and 
union, now and forever, one 
and inseparable," went ringing 
throughout the land, and have 
become the ruling sentiment of 
the American people. In this 
debate Webster won the proud 
title of "The Defender of the 
Constitution." 

380. "The Federal Union: 
It Must be Preserved." The 
South Carolina leaders knew 
that Jackson, who was then 
President, was not a friend to 
high tariff duties. How it would help their cause if they 
could get "Old Hickory" to come out in favor of nulli- 
fication ! They invited Jackson to a dinner on Jefferson's 
birthday, where many speeches, filled with the nullifi- 
cation idea, were made. When the President arose to 
speak, he astonished Mr. Calhoun and his friends by 
offering as his toast: " The Federal Union : It must be 
preserved." Jackson, too, it seemed, was for the Union 
and against nullification. 

381. South Carolina Nullifies the Tariff (1832). The 
tariff of 1832, though lower than that of 1828, did not 
satisfy South Carolina. She decided to try nullification. 
A state convention declared both tariffs unconstitutional 
and forbade the collection of duties in her ports. 




JOHN C. CALHOUN 
From a photograph by Matthew B. 
Bradvin the collect ion of the War 
Department, IVashingtoii, D. C. 



Differences Between the Free and Slave States 299 



President Jackson was furious. He ordered General 
Scott and two war vessels to Charleston, and issued a 
proclamation declaring-: (/) That the Constitution did 
not form a league, but a government ; {2) that i unifica- 
tion was unconstitutional and revolutionary ; (j) that he 
would enforce the laws without fear or favor. 

President Jackson was highly praised throughout the 
North, even by the Whigs. Some of the Southern states 
which were opposed to the tariff did not favor nullifica- 
tion as a remedy, but Governor Hayne declared that if 
the tariff was collected by force of arms. South Carolina 
would secede from the Union. 

382. Clay's Compromise Tariff (1833). President 
Jackson asked Congress to give him full authority to use 
the army and navy in collecting the tariff. A measure 
called the " Force Bill " was introduced for this purpose. 
Many friends of the Union, both 
North and South, feared an 
armed collision at Charleston. 
To avoid the use of force and to 
bring about a compromise, 
Henry Clay introduced a bill 
providing for a gradual reduc- 
tion of the tariff till its protective 
effect should be almost entirely 
destroyed. The "Force Bill" 
and the bill for the reduction of 
the tariff passed Congress at the 
same time. South Carolina was 
satisfied and repealed her ordi- 
nance of nullification. 

383. Beginnings of the New 
Anti-Slavery Movement. After 
the invention of the cotton gin, opposition to slavery 
everywhere seemed to grow less, except among the 




HENRY CLAY 

From a daguerreotype owned by 
Garrett Brown, Jr., Chicago 



?oo 



The GrcnvtJi of Sectional Feeling 



faithful Quakers, whose opposition, though earnest, was 
never violent. 

The very first leaders in a new anti-slavery move- 
ment were Benjamin Lundy and William Lloyd Garri- 
son, whb published an anti-slavery paper in Baltimore. 
Garrison later started a paper in Boston called the Liber- 
ator ( 1 831), which was intended to arouse the people in 
favor of the immediate abolition of slavery. He was very 
outspoken, denounced the Constitution because it pro- 
tected slavery, and even called upon the North to break 
up the Union. Garrison and his friends formed abolition 

societies in New England and 
also in the Middle States in 
order to carr}'- on the agitation. 
In 1833 delegates from ten 
free states met at Philadelphia, 
and behind closed doors organ- 
ized the American Anti-Slavery 
Society. Abolition societies 
grew rapidly in number in the 
North, and sent the Liberator 
and other writings into the 
slave states. The Southern peo- 
ple were indignant, destroyed 
such papers wherever found, 
and called on the Government 
to keep them out of the mails. 
.//X V/;%S^fe;':o^ 5^;;^ The majority of people in the 

House, Boston, Massachusetts North at first OppOSed the aboli- 

tionists. Northern mobs broke up anti-slavery meetings, 
destroyed abolition printing presses, threatened to hang 
abolition leaders, and in 1837 a pro-slavery mob at Alton, 
Illinois, killed Elijah Lovejoy, the publisher of an anti- 
slavery paper. But such acts helped rather than harmed 
the anti-slavery movement. 




WILLIAM LLOYD GARRISON 



Differences Between ty Pree and Slave States 301 




384. What the South Thought. Most Southern peo- 
ple at this time believed that the white man and the 
negro could live together only as master and slave. 
They feared that 
the abolitionists 
and their papers 
would make the 
slave discontented 
with his lot and "^^ 
would influence 
him to rise in rebel- 
lion and murder 
the whites, as Nat 
Turner and his 
fellow slaves had 
done a few years 
before in Virginia 

(1831). Besides, the burning anti-slaverv documents at Charleston, 

1, / SOUTH CAROLINA 

South thought that 

slavery was its own affair, and that, since the Consti- 
tution allowed states to have slavery, the abolitionists 
ought not to interfere. This feeling on the part of the 
Southern people increased as the anti-slavery movement 
grew stronger, and led them, as we shall see, to take 
extreme measures. 

385. The Right of Petition Denied (1836-1844). In 
order to keep down excitement, the opponents of the 
abolitionists, in the North as' well as in the South, not 
only tried to prevent speaking or writing against slavery, 
but also demanded that Congress pass a rule to receive 
no petitions from the people on the slavery question. 
Congress did so. This action only added fuel to the 
fire. Before, only a few hundred people had petitioned 
Congress to abolish slavery in the District of Colum- 
bia or prohibit its going into the territories. Now, 



302 The Growth of Sectional Feeling 

thousands of men and women put their names to peti- 
tions against slavery, some even demanding its imme- 
diate abolition. 

Great debates arose in Congress on the right of peti- 
tion.' John Quincy Adams, then a Congressman, was its 
foremost defender. Only a few Northern members even 
stood by him at first. The House threatened to expel 
him for presenting petitions hostile to slavery. But he 
kept steadily on and finally compelled Congress to repeal 
(1844) the "gag" law, as the rule against anti-slavery peti- 
tions was called. 

Even the opponents of Adams admired his courage 
and devotion to duty. Only two years later, after reelec- 
tion, the whole House rose to receive him, and two mem- 
bers escorted him to his old seat. Here he was stricken 
with fatal illness in 1848. His last words were : " Thank 
the officers of the House. This is the last of earth. I am 
content." Thus the " Old Man Eloquent " died as he 
had lived, never turning aside from what he considered 
the path of duty. Senator Holmes of South Carolina, a 
slaveholder, in pronouncing his eulogy in the Senate, 
called him "the patriot father and the patriot sage." 

386. An Anti-Slavery Party. The slavery question 
was now discussed in newspapers, in Congress, in the 
pulpit, and on the platform. Since the Whig and Demo- 
cratic parties refused to take sides, anti-slavery men 
formed a new party and nominated James G. Birney for 
the Presidency in 1840. He received over seven thou- 
sand votes. In the next campaign the anti-slavery men 
met at Buffalo, New York, christened themselves the 
Liberty party, and renominated Birney. At this election 
(1844) his popular vote was over sixty-two thousand, a 
considerable gain in four years. This growth was largely 
caused by the excitement over a new movement on the 
part of slavery. 

' Amendments. Article I. 



The Struggle for More Slave Territory 



303 




THE STRUGGLE FOR MORE SLAVE TERRITORY 

387. Texas Becomes a Republic. After the pur- 
chase of Lotiisiana, both Spain and the United States 
claimed Texas. Unfortunately the 
United States gave up her claim 
when Florida was purchased, and 
Texas finally became a part of the 
Republic of Mexico after that 
country had won her freedom from 
Spain. When American citizens 
began to emigrate to Texas, our 
THE "LON^sTAR" FLAG OF govcmment offcrcd to purchase the 
THE TEXAS REPUBLIC country. Although Mexico refused 
the offer, she granted large tracts of land to these settlers. 
In a few years the Americans, 
many of them slaveholders, were 
in a majority in Texas. About 
this time Mexico abolished 
slavery, and, as the American 
settlers gave no heed to the law, 
she forbade any more of them 
entering her territory. 

The Mexican government and 
the Americans in Texas, there- 
fore, did not get on well together. 
Finally the Texans rebelled 
against Santa Anna, the President 
of Mexico, declared their inde- 
pendence, and set up a republic. 
The people of the United States, fjoiu a photograph by Matthew b. 

^ ^ ' Brady 1)1 the collection of the War 

especially those of the South, depart me?it, Washington, D. c. 

sympathized deeply with their countrymen in Texas, 
and sent them arms and ammunition, men and money. 
The Mexicans brutally massacred a small band of Tex- 
ans, who had resisted a siege heroically, in an old fort at 




SAM HOUSTON 



304 



The GrowtJc of Sictional l''c cling 



San Antonio called the "Alamo." But this event only 
aroused the Texans, and, under Samuel Houston, they 
overthrew several times their number of Mexicans com- 
manded by Santa Anna, at San Jacinto (April 21, 1836). 

Mexico gave up the struggle, 
and the United States and sev- 
eral European nations soon recog- 
nized Texas as an independent 
republic. 

388. The Candidates of 1844 
and the Texas Question. Texas 
wanted to enter the Union, and 
the South was determined to have 
her admitted in order to increase 
the number of slave states. But 
Mexico plainly told the United 
States that the moment Texas 
was annexed she would declare 
war. The anti-slavery people and 
'ir^^ind''sla^L^"^/'& nien opposed to war with Mexico 
mond, \ irgniui dcclarcd agaiust annexation. But 

John Tyler, who became President after the death of Harri- 
son (1841), was determined to bring Texas into the Union. 
The Democrats in 1844 nominated for the Presidency 
James K. Polk of Tennessee, a friend of annexation, 
while Henry Clay, who was opposed to immediate 
annexation, was again the Whig candidate. The Anti- 
Slavery, or Liberty party, nominated James G. Birney. 
The Democratic platform aroused the enthusiasm of the 
South by demanding the " reannexation of Texas," and 
strongly appealed to the North by calling for the " reoc- 
cupation of Oregon." It vSaid " reannexation " because 
tlK- United States had once claimed Texas (j^ 387). 

389. Oregon ; Annexation of Texas. Both England 
and the United States had claimed Oregon (§301), but 




The Struggle for More Slave Territory 



305 



had agreed (18 18) 
to occupy the ter- 
ritory jointly until 
the dispute was 
settled. (See map 
facing page 306.) 
The United States 
had no idea of 
giving up Oregon, 
and settlers were 
already entering 
that country. In 
1843 Marcus Whit- 
man, a returning 
missionary, gave 
aid to an emi- 
grant train of two 
hundred wagons, 
and by 1846 sever- 
al thousand hardy 
American settlers 
had given the 
United States a 
firm foothold on 
the Columbia. 

The campaign 
grew more excit- 
ing as the Demo- 
crats began to 
demand "All of 

,, THE TEXAS BOUNDARY DISPUTE 

wregon or none, Sliowmg the places covered in the campaigns of the 

and that the United ^"^"'^'^'^ '^"'' "^ ''"^ 

States must have as its boundary " fifty-four-forty or 
fight." Anti-slavery Whigs did not like Clay because he 
was not strongly opposed to annexation, and enough of 




3o6 



The Growth of Siclional Feeling 



them voted for Birney to enable Polk to carry New York 
and win the election. President Tyler declared that the 
people had approved annexation, and on the last day 

of his term he signed the "joint 
resolution " of Congress admit- 
ting Texas into the Union (1845). 
Thus the " reannexation of 
Texas" was accomplished. 
Would the " reoccupation of 
Oregon " be brought about as 
easily? England refused to 
accept 54° 40' as the boundary 
line, because this would shut out 
Canada from the Pacific. The 
matter was fortunately com- 
promised by an agreement ( 1 846) 
to extend to the ocean the line 
of 49°, which already separated 
a part of Canada from the United 
States. The line of 49° had been 
established by the treaty of 1 8 1 8, 
and confirmed by the Webster-Ashburton treaty of 1842.' 
For the first time the United States held undisputed 
possession on the Pacific. But south of Oregon, between 
the Rocky Mountains and the sea, lay a vast unprotected 
and almost unoccupied country belonging to Mexico. 
Whose shall it be? 

390. Taylor Ordered to the Rio Grande ; War with 
Mexico Begins (1846). We made a treaty with Eng- 
land and war on Mexico at about the same time. Texas 
claimed the Rio Grande as her western line, while 
Mexico declared it was the Nueces River. (See map, 
page 305.) The country between the two rivers was. 
therefore, in dispute. President Polk, without hesitation, 
sided with Texas, and ordered Zachary Taylor with his 




'I'l 



JAMES K. POLK 

From apliotograpli by Matlhew B. 
Dradv in the collection of the War 
Department^ Washington^ D. C. 



Conslitutioii. Arliclc II., Sec- ■^' 



The Struggle for More Slave Territory 307 

little army to take post on the Rio Grande. Mexico 
looked upon this as an act of war, and her forces, in 
April, 1846, killed or captured every man of an American 
scouting party in the disputed region. 

As soon as this news reached Washington, President 
Polk sent his famous message to Congress, declaring: 
"Mexico has invaded our territory and shed American 
blood on American soil." Congress declared war (May 
13, 1846), provided for raising fifty thousand volunteers, 
and voted money for supplies. Although the Whigs 
were against the war, they generally voted for means to 
carry it on. Not only did Northern anti-slavery senti- 
ment oppose the war, but a few men in the South, 
including John C. Calhoun, believed it would work more 
harm than good. The war, 
however, became popular in 
the South and West. 

391. Taylor's Victories and 
Popularity. The Mexicans, 
with superior numbers, met 
General Taylor's little army at 
Palo Alto (May 8, 1846) and 
were badly beaten. (See map, 
page 305.) The next day Tay- 
lor attacked the enemy well 
posted at Resaca de la Palma. 
Again the Mexicans were 
beaten, and were forced to 

recross the Rio Grande. Taylor From afiw^lrlp^r^i^ossession 
rested and gathered reenforce- fe^i^J^^'Ht^'J^^^jUel^^ 

mentS. Soon afterward he Armory, Boston, Massachusetis 

marched westward and attacked the vStrongly fortified 
town of Monterey, containing a large force. After the 
walls had been beaten down, the streets were barricaded 
by the Mexicans, and had to be stormed one by one. 




ZACHARY TAYLOR 



308 



The Gro'vth of Sectional Feeling 



The strongly built houses were also like so many small 
forts, and had to be taken separately. From roofs, from 
windows, from behind all sorts of protection, the Ameri- 
cans were fired onby the Mexicans, now grown desperate. 
It took four days to force them to surrender (September 
24th) '(See map, page 305.) 

Taylor passed on to Saltillo and thence to Buena 
Vista. General Santa Anna knew that a part of Taylor's 
army had been sent to join General Scott, and thought 




the time had come to regain by one blow all that Mexico 
had lost. Accordingly he advanced to the attack with a 
huge army. But the Americans were strongly posted 
and beat back charge after charge. At the end of the 
day's fighting, Taylor had added another to his unbroken 
list of victories (February 23, 1847). His work was now 
done, and " Old Rough and Ready " returned to the 
United States a military hero. 

Long before Taylor won Buena Vista the people 
began to talk of him for President. Although he was 
only an honest-minded soldier, and cared nothing for 
political parties, the people and the Whig politicians 



The Struggle for More S/ave Territory 309 

made him a candidate. Again the great Whig states- 
men, Clay and Webster, were put aside for a successful 
general (§ 353). 

392. The Conquest of California and New Mexico 
(1846). Before war with Mexico had been declared, an 
American fleet had been sent to the Pacific coast, and 
John C. Fremont, the "pathfinder," who was exploring 
routes to Oregon, had been ordered to look after Amer- 
ican interests in California. Acting together, these 
forces captured the leading towns (1846). In the mean- 
time, Colonel Stephen Kearny had been ordered to 
seize what is now New Mexico. Starting with his little 
army of eighteen hundred inen froin Fort Leavenworth, 
Kansas, he made his way over the mountains of Colorado 
to the Rio Grande, which he followed down to Santa Fe. 
He took possession of the place without a struggle, and 
declared that New Mexico was a part of the United 
States. Thus the whole of the region south of Oregon 
easily fell into the hands of the Americans. (See map, 
page 311.) 

393. General Scott in the Mexican Capital (1847). 
While these events were taking place, an army sup- 
ported by Commodore Perry's fleet was gathering under 
the Commander-in-Chief, General Winfield Scott (§ 319), 
for a blow at the heart of Mexico. Among the officers 
who served under Scott, and who afterward became 
famous, were Grant, Lee, Johnston, Thomas, Longstreet, 
and Jackson. The fortified city of Vera Cruz was first 
captured, after a nine days' bombardment (March, 1847), 
and General Scott then began his march for the Mexi- 
can capital, two hundred miles away. 

This was a bold undertaking. The road led over 
rough mountain passes, defended by frowning fortifica- 
tions bristling with cannon. But nothing could check 
the Americans. They stormed the steep heights of Cerro 



3IO The GroivtJi of Sectional Feeling 

Gordo, routed the Mexican army, and after a brief rest 
descended into the valley of Mexico. 

Behind the defenses of the City of Mexico Santa Anna 
had collected an army of over thirty thousand men for a 
last d,esperate stand for their capital against the hated 
invader. The Americans began the assault August 19th, 
and before the day was done they had won Contreras, 
San Antonio, and Churubusco, and had beaten back Santa 
Anna. (See map, page 305). 

At this point the generals agreed to discuss terms of 
peace. But Santa Anna slyly used the time to make his 
remaining forts stronger. When Scott learned of this 
treachery he moved to the attack and captured Molino 
del Rey at the foot of the heights on which the strong 
castle of Chapultepec is situated. A few days later the 
Americans climbed the heights, and by the aid of ladders 
got inside the castle before it could be blown up. On 
the next day the victorious army marched into the City 
of Mexico (September 14, 1847). Santa Anna had fled, 
and Mexico was helpless. 

SHALL THE NEW TERRITORY BE SLAVE OR FREE? 

394. The Wilmot Proviso and the Treaty of Peace. 
It was easier to win the war than to settle questions 
it raised. From the beginning, opposition to the war had 
increased, because many people believed that its main 
purpose was to force territory from Mexico. The seizure 
of California and New Mexico seemed to point that way. 
Besides, President Polk very early asked permission of 
Congress to spend two million dollars in making a treaty 
of peace, although Mexico owed American citizens sev- 
eral million dollars. 

The anti-slavery men took alarm, and David Wilmot, 
a Pennsylvania Democrat, offered in Congress a proviso 
that in all territory obtained from Mexico, slavery should 
be forever prohibited. The proviso did not become a law. 



Shall the New Territory be Slave or Free? 



311 



The President then had his own way, especially since 
our troops were in possession of the desired territory. 
The treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) not only estab- 
lished the Rio Grande instead of the Nueces as a bound- 
ary, but also gave us New Mexico and Upper California. 









■^ San i)ieg, 




1/fi XICO 



TERRITORY GAINED BY THE TREATY OF PEACE, i 



This imperial domain cost the United States but eight- 
een million dollars. Mexico received fifteen million dol- 
lars, and the rest was paid to American citizens holding 
claims against Mexico, A dispute, however, arose over 
the boundary line of the new territory running from the 
Rio Grande to the Gila River. But the United States 
satisfied Mexico by buying a strip of land since known as 
the Gadsden Purchase (1853). (See map above.) 

395. The Campaign of 1848 and the Free Soil Party. 
The defeat of the Wilmot Proviso did not put an end to 
the agitation over slavery. The old parties had both anti- 
slavery and pro-slavery men in them, and in their national 
nominating conventions they voted down all references 



' Constitution. Article II.. Sec. 2. 



312 TJie Groivth of Sectional Feeling 

to slavery. They went further. The Whigs, whose 
majority was in the North, nominated for President a 
Southern man and a slaveholder, General Zachary Tay- 
lor ; while the Democrats, whose majority was in the 
South, nominated a Northern man and a non-slave- 
holder. Senator Lewis Cass. 

Anti-slavery men declared that the old parties were 
afraid of the slavery question, and that a new party ought 
to be formed to oppose the extension of slavery into the 
territories. Amid great enthusiasm such a party was 
formed at Buffalo (1848) and named the "Free Soil" 
party. Many Northern Whigs and anti-slavery Demo- 
crats, together with the Liberty party men, united in 
this convention. It nominated Martin Van Buren for 
President and Charles Francis Adams for Vice-President. 
The platform asserted the following principles : (/) That 
history shows " it was once the settled policy of the nation 
to discourage and not encourage slavery " ; {2) that " we 
propose no interference by Congress with slavery within 
the limits of any state " ; (j) that Congress should pro- 
hibit the extension of slavery into all free territory ; (./; 
that "there must be no more compromises with slavery" ; 
(5) that "we inscribe on our own banner: Free soil, 
free speech, free labor, and free men." 

The Whigs won the election and once more we had a 
soldier President. 

Taylor, the Whig slaveholder, received strong sup- 
port in the South where the Democrats were usually 
strongest ; while Cass, the Democrat and non-slave- 
holder, did well in the North where the Whigs were 
usually strongest. Taylor carried New Vork because 
several thousand Democrats, called " Barnburners," 
voted for Van Buren instead of Cass. This election 
showed that even the two old parties were beginning to 
break up on the slavery question. 



SJiall the Neiv Territory be Slave or Free? 313 

396. Disputing Over California. The election of 1 848 
did not settle the question of slavery in the territories, 
and neither could Congress settle it in the next two 
years. Some wanted to exclude slavery from the new 
territory, others.to extend the Missouri Compromise line 
to the Pacific, while still others proposed to leave the 
question to the people of the territories. This last plan 
was favored by many slaveholders, but to their aston- 
ishment, President Taylor had a plan of his own. He 
proposed to admit California directly as a state without 
her first becoming a territory. California was already 
knocking for admission with a free constitution in her 
hand. How did it come about that while Congress was 
disputing, California decided the question of slavery 
for herself? 

397. The Discovery of Gold. Early in 1848 a me- 
chanic digging a mill-race along the American River, 
about one hundred miles northeast of San Francisco, 
suddenly saw yellow particles in the sand. Gathering 
specimens, he carried them to the owner of the mill, a 
Mr. Sutter, who decided that they were gold. As the 
news spread, great excitement arose and the "gold 
fever " raged. .Everybody wanted to dig gold. The old 
slow ways of earning a living in California were given 
up. Men found no attraction in lumbering, milling, 
herding, clerking, or farming. Even the soldiers de- 
serted their posts of duty. Vessels coming into Cali- 
fornia ports lost their crews before they could unload 
their cargoes. Within four months four thousand people 
were on the Sacramento, living in rude huts or tents, 
and digging gold with all sorts of instruments from a 
knife to a pick. 

398. The "Forty-niners." As the news of the dis- 
covery (jf gold spread over the country the rush to 
the gold fields was such as America had never seen. 



3H 



The Gnnct/i of Sectional Feeling 




Siliil 



Many crossed the mountains, some went around Cape 
Horn, while others reached California by way of Panama. 
By the fall of 1849 California had a hardy population of 

"x^ about one hundred 

thousand who needed 
an orderly govern- 
ment as badly as 
they wanted gold. 
The slave states, so 
deeply interested in 
' " California's fate, had 
sent but few emigrants, and a 
constitution prohibiting slavery 
was adopted by an overwhelm- 
ing majority. 

399. Henry Clay as Peace- 
maker Again. The vSouth was 
disappointed over California, 
and, under the lead of Calhoun, 
her Congressmen sent an address to the Southern people 
calling on them to unite in maintaining their rights. 
Southern leaders now began to assert that Congress had 
no power to interfere with slavery in any of the terri- 
tories, and some threatened secession. 

The Northern people meanwhile were daily growing 
more and more opposed to slavery. Some demanded the 
abolition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia. 
One legislature after another declared that Congress 
had the right to prohibit slavery in the territories, and 
extreme abolitionists even demanded that the North 
escape blame for slavery by dissolving the Union. 

Henry Clay had retired from the Senate, an aged and 
broken man, to seek rest at Ashland, his plantation in 
Kentucky. He had said farewell to public life. But 
when the m.utterings of the political storm reached 



A CALIFORNIA MINING CAMP OF '49 



Shall the New Territory be Slave or Free? 315 

Kentucky, her legislature gave its unanimous vote for 
his return to the Senate. He resolved to give his last 
days to healing the nation's wounds. Clay proposed 
(January, 1850): (/) That California be admitted into 
the Union as a free state ; {2) that the territories of Utah 
and New Mexico be organized without reference to 
slavery; (j) that the slave trade be abolished in the 
District of Columbia ; {4) that a new and more stringent 
law for the return of runaway slaves be passed; (5) that 
the dispute between Texas and New Mexico be settled 
by paying Texas to give up her claim to portions of 
New Mexico. 

400. Great Debates in the Senate (1850) ; Clay and 
Calhoun. Never before had there been such an assem- 
bly of ability and oratory in Congress. Clay, Webster, 
and Calhoun were all there, with Thomas H. Benton and 




JEFFERSON DAVIS IN THE COMPROMISE DEBATES IN CONGRESS 

Jefferson Davis from the South, and Stephen A. Doug- 
las, William H. Seward, and Salmon P. Chase from the 
North. On February 5th Henry Clay arose to address a 
Senate filled to overflowing with visitors, some of whom 

."^ Constitution, Article IV., Sec. 2, 1[ 3. 



3i6 



The GrowtJi of Sectional Feeling 



had come hundreds of miles to hear the silver-tongued ora- 
tor make his last appeal for the Union, He asserted that 
disunion meant war, and pleaded for a compromise which 
might once more make a harmonious country. For two 
days his eloquence swayed the audience. When he closed, 
the people gathered around him to show their admiration. 
Next came the great champion of states' rights, John 
C. Calhoun. He was too ill to speak, and a friend read 
his address. What a strange scene it was ! " There he 
sat, motionless like a statue, with the hand of death upon 
him ; — listening to his own words from another's mouth," 
and anxiously watching their effect on the faces of the 




WEBSTEK ADDRESSING THE SENATE ON THE 7TH OK MARCH 

great audience. He declared that the Union was in 
danger because the South was alarmed at the North's 
hostility to slavery. He wanted: (/) An equal division 
of the territories between the two sections; {2) better 
laws for the return of fugitive slaves, and ( j ) the stop- 
ping of all anti-slavery agitation; and declared, "If you 
of the North will not do this, then let our Southern 
states separate and depart in peace " ($5 379). 



Shall tJie New Territory he Slave or Free? 317 



401. Webster's Seventh of March Speech ; The 
New Leaders. Men wondered why Webster had not 
yet spoken. On the 7th of March he delivered his 
famous speech, " For the Union and the Constitution." 
Webster sincerely loved the Union, for he knew its 
value. But in denouncing agitators both North and 
South, he placed most of the blame on the anti-slavery 
men. They were disappointed, for the great orator who 
had battled against Hayne and opposed all compromise 
with Carolina in 1833 now seemed to be deserting their 
cause. 

Anti-slavery men looked for new champions and 
found them in two men who had just come into the 
Senate: William H. Seward -v, 

of New York and Salmon P. 
Chase of Ohio. Seward's 
speech against Clay's measures 
excited widespread interest. 
He declared his opposition to 
all compromises with slavery 
and favored the immediate 
admission of California.' But 
he startled the country by 
asserting that not only the 
Constitution but "a higher 
law than the Constitution " 
makes the territories free. 
By this Seward meant the 
moral law. The speech of 
Chase followed, opposing the 
compromise, arguing in favor 
of the Wilmot Proviso, and denying the right of Con- 
gress to pass a fugitive slave law. 

The South, too, found a new leader. Jefferson Davis 
stepped into the place of the dying Calhoun, and, like 




MILLARD FILLMORE 

From a portrait fainted by John 
ll'i'stev Jarvis, now in the Council 
Chamber of the New York City Hall 



1 Constitution. Article IV., Sec. 3. 



3i8 The GroivtJi of Sectional Feeling 

Seward and Chase, was much more outspoken than the 
older statesmen. While the debates were still under 
way, Taylor suddenly died, and Millard Fillmore, who 
strongly favored the compromise, became President. 

, 402. The Compromise of 1850. A committee of 
thirteen Senators reported in favor of Clay's measures, 
but a majority of Congress was opposed to them taken 
together. Taken separately, however, the following 
became laws : 

/. The admission of California as a free state. 

2. The organization of New Mexico and Utah into 
territories without mention of slavery. 

J. The payment of ten million dollars to Texas for 
disputed land claimed by New Mexico. 

/J.. A new fugitive slave law, denying the negro the 
right of trial by jury, commanding all people to aid in 
returning an escaped slave if their services were de- 
manded by the officers, and fining and imprisoning any 
one helping the fugitive or hindering his arrest. 

5. The abolition of buying and selling slaves in the 
District of Columbia. 

403. The Effects of the Compromise. The country 
was glad when the compromise measures passed. The 
majority of the people hoped, with Clay, that harmony 
and good feeling would return, as had happened after 
the Missouri Compromise. To encourage this end and 
to condemn further agitation, " Union meetings " were 
held, in which both Whigs and Democrats took part. 

But the fugitive slave law was in the way. The anti- 
slavery people hated the law, and many who favored its 
enforcement did not like it. A slaveholder could not 
understand why any one should oppose the return of 
fugitive slaves, since they legally belonged to persons 
in the South. But many fugitives had escaped years 
before and were now living happily in their own homes. 

• Constitution. Article IV., Sec. 2, U 3. 
J Constitution, Article I., Sec. 8, H i" 




PA C I F I 



iT^^^^s 




/ o 

/ ^ 
/ "^ 

. L, r r. 


«'•'/ 



2 W 



►^ U, CO £ 



O 2 



Shall tJic New Territory be Slave or Free ? 319 

Negroes held meetings and begged the people of the 
North to have the law repealed. In Boston a slave 
named Shadrach was taken from the officers by a mob 
and sent to Canada. The " Jerry rescue," in Syracuse, 
attracted widespread attention. In other places excite- 
ment was aroused by the capture of fugitives. In the 
border free states there was great activity among a class 
of men known as "negro hunters," who searched for 
the runaway slave in order to get the reward offered 
for his capture. Although 
very few "rescues" were 
attempted in these states, 
the work of the "Under- 
ground Railroad" in- 
creased, and its branches 
spread in many directions. 
The number of slaves who 
tried to escape rapidly in- 
creased, especially in the 
border slave states. 

404. The "Under- 
ground Railroad." The 
" Underground Railroad " was a name applied to those 
routes along which slaves were accustomed to find help 
in reaching Canada or some safe place in the North. 
Travel from one "station" to another was carried on 
with the utmost secrecy, for every man who lifted his 
hand to help the fugitive was breaking the law, and was 
liable to be sent to prison. This was a strange condi- 
tion of things — hundreds of good people violating the 
laws of the United States in order to keep from violat- 
ing their consciences ! The Southerners, firmly believing 
slavery to be right, felt that the anti-slavery men were 
doing them great harm in encouraging and helping 
negroes to escape. 




A RESCUE MOB 



320 



The Growth of Sectional Feeling 




HARRIET BEECHER STOWE 

From a photograph by Sarony, 

New York 



405. Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin" (1852). Harriet 
Beecher Stowe was deeply moved by the return of vSo 

many negro fugitives under the 
new law, and wrote Uncle Tom's 
Cabin to make plain to the North 
what slavery was as she under- 
stood it. The book laid hold on 
the minds and hearts of the 
people as no anti-slavery orator 
had ever done. Everybody who 
could buy or borrow it read 
Uncle Toms Cabin. Thousands 
of copies were sold immediately. 
Rufus Choate said : " That book 
will make two millions of abo- 
litionists." 
The slave- 
holders declared that it pictured only 

the worst side of slavery and thus 

gave false impressions. Mrs. Stowe 

was severely criticised, and William 

Lloyd Garrison wrote to her: "All 

the defenders of slavery have let me 

alone and are abusing you." 

406. Why the \A/'higs Were - 
Defeated in 1852. Both the old / 
parties came out strongly in their 
platforms in favor of the compromise 
of 1850. The Whigs nominated 
General Winfield Scott, and the 
Democrats, Franklin Pierce of New ^;°'l % 'Rffcfii^fro,,, 
Hampshire. 

were carried by Pierce and but four 
by Scott. Not since the days of Monroe had there been 
such a victory. How can it be explained ? 




FRANKLIN PIERCE 

made 



Twenty-seven states ^^^/t^'l^^^ctl^l^ :>:^ 'III 

Neio York /^ublic Library 



Drifting Rapidly Apart 321 

The two greatest Whig statesmen, Clay and Web- 
ster, died during this campaign. There were no more 
Whigs like them. The people were tired of the ques- 
tion of slavery and felt that the compromise would be 
safer in Pierce's hands than in Scott's. Besides, many 
Democrats who had followed Van Buren in 1848 were 
now welcomed back to their old party. The result was 
that Hale, the Free Soil candidate, received but half as 
many votes as were cast by that party in 1848. Men 
began to speak of a second "era of good feeling," and 
President Pierce, in his inaugural, pledged his efforts to 
preserve harmony. 

DRIFTING RAPIDLY APART 

407. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill (1854). Although 
the people wanted to rest from discussions about slavery, 
they were suddenly aroused from the growing quiet by 
the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. 

The Compromise of 1850 had left the question of 
slavery in New Mexico and Utah to be settled by the 
people of those territories. Why not apply this plan of 
"popular sovereignty" to the territory north of 36° 30', 
between the Missouri River and the Rocky Mountains ? 

Senator Stephen A, Douglas answered this question 
by bringing in a bill making this region into two terri- 
tories, Kansas and Nebraska, in which the people were 
to settle the question of slavery for themselves. The 
compromise line of 1820 would thus be abolished. 

Fierce debates followed in Congress, and a storm of 
indignation broke out all over the North. The anti- 
slavery men declared that if this old compromise could 
be swept away, nothing would be sacred enough to stand 
between slavery and free territory. Public meetings 
denounced Douglas and the Kansas-Nebraska act, and 
even many Democratic papers opposed it, but all in 
vain. (See map facing page 322.) 



322 



TJic GrotviJi of Sectional Feeling 



408. The Race for Kansas. No sooner was the Kan 
sas-Nebraska bill passed than a race for the possession 
of Kansas began. Slaveholders from near-by states were 
the first to rush into the territory. But Eli Thayer of 
Massachusetts organized a company, "The Emigrant Aid 
Society," for the purpose of sending anti-slavery men to 
Kansas. He knew that the North had more emigrants 
to send than the South, and that in the end they could 




■ 1 'VO 



Ik 



m: 



-^wi 



EMIGRANTS ON THEIR WAY TO KANSAS 



make Kansas a free state. In the summer of 1854 the 
first emigrants started on their long journey. All along 
the route people gathered to see the strange company, 
whose numbers increased on the way. The pro-slavery 
men had already settled Atchison. The free-state men 
located at Lawrence. Before the year closed each party 
had settled several places, the pro-slavery men along 
the Missouri River and the free-state men south of the 
Kansas River. 

The excitement in Kansas constantly increased, and 
each party resolved to win. By the aid of voters from 
border states the pro-slavery men elected their delegate 
to Congress, and, in 1855, elected nearly all the members 



Drifting Rapidly Apar* 323 

of the territorial legislature. This legislature passed 
laws establishing slavery, and punishing with death any- 
one who helped a slave to escape. Victory seemed to be 
on the side of the pro-slavery men. 

409. Two Governments in Kansas. The free-state 
men, however, were resolved not to obey a legislature 
elected by citizens of anothet state. Their leader, Dr. 
Charles Robinson, had helped make California a free state, 
and they decided to follow her example by making a 
constitution and applying at once for admission into the 
Union as a state (§ 396). 

The free-state men accordingly drew up the " Topeka 
Constitution," which was easily ratified because the pro- 
slavery men refused to vote upon it. A governor, a legis- 
lature, and United States Senators were elected by the 
anti-slavery men the next year. Thus Kansas had two 
rival and hostile governments, each demanding that Con- 
gress and the President should recognize and support 
it and reject the other. It was found to be no easy task 
to apply the principle of "popular sovereignty" to the 
settlement of the slavery question. 

410. Civil War in Kansas ; The Assault on Sumner. 
"Bleeding Kansas" was an expression frequently used 
in newspapers and by public speakers. All free-state 
men in Kansas were called Abolitionists and "Black 
Republicans," while the supporters of slavery were 
named " Border Ruffians." 

Pro-slavery men from Missouri attacked Lawrence 
and burned some of its buildings. A few days later, John 
Brown, with a party of free-state men, killed several pro- 
slavery men. A pitched battle was threatened, but tem- 
porary order was restored by the energetic action of 
Colonel E. V. Sumner, commanding the national troops 
in Kansas. He dispersed Brown's band and sent the 
Missourians home. 



324 The GrowtJi of Sectional Feeling 

The rest of the country was now thoroughly aroused. 
Senator Charles Sumner delivered a powerful speech in 
the Senate on the "Crime against Kansas," in which 
he spoke harshly of Senator Butler of South Carolina. 
Congressman Brooks, a relative of Butler's, assaulted 
Sumner at his desk with a heavy cane, and left him 
bleeding on the floor of thfe Senate. The North, particu- 
larly New England, felt outraged. Wise and temperate 
action was made almost impossible by such events. 

411. The Lecompton Constitution. During all this 
time the free-state men in Kansas had increased faster 
than their opponents. In 1857 they carried even the ter- 
ritorial election. But before the pro-slavery men went 
out of power they met at Lecompton and made a state 
constitution establishing slavery. This was submitted 
to the people not to be accepted or rejected, but in such 
a way that they had to accept it either with or without 
slavery. The free-state settlers refused to vote, but when 
they came into power the entire Lecompton constitution 
was submitted by them to a popular vote and rejected 
by a large majority. President Buchanan, nevertheless, 
recommended that Congress accept this constitution, but 
Senator Douglas and many Northern Democrats refused 
tjo do so because such action would violate the principle 
of " popular sovereignty." So Kansas had to wait until 
1 86 1 before she could become a state. 

412. Immediate Consequences of the Conflict in 
Kansas. By 1856 certain great results of the contest for 
Kansas were clearly seen. 

/. A deeper feeling of hatred and suspicion had 
grown up between the two sections. The South began 
to believe that the North was resolved to destroy slavery 
in the states, as well as to keep it out of the territories. 
The North believed that the South was determined to 
push it into all the territories. 



Drifting Rapidly Apart 



325 



2. Various Northern states had passed personal lib- 
erty laws which greatly hindered the execution of the 
fugitive slave law, by giving the fugitive, when arrested, 
the right of trial by jury and the help of a lawyer. 

J. The Whig party was broken up. No great leaders 
arose to take the place of Clay and Webster. The South- 
ern Whigs could trust the party no longer on the slavery 
question, and a majority of them went over to the Dem- 
ocrats. The majority of Whigs in the North followed 
Seward, Greeley, and others into the ranks of the new 
anti-slavery party. 

/}.. The Republican party was organized. Three sets 
of men united under the name Republicans: (/) The 
Northern Whigs, who made up the majority of the new 
party. {2) The Free Soilers, who came to it because it 
adopted their battle-cry of " No 
more slave territory" (§395). (j) 
Democrats who were opposed to 
slavery in Kansas. The Repub- 
lican party was purely sectional 
and the Democratic party was 
rapidly becoming so. 

413. The First Republican 
Campaign (1856). The Demo- 
crats put forward James Buch- 
anan and John C. Breckinridge 
as their standard-bearers; the 
Republicans, holding their first 
national convention in Philadel- 
phia, selected John C. Fremont 
and William L. Dayton as can- 
didates. 

A remnant of the Whigs 
nominated Millard Fillmore, who had already been 
selected by another new party called the American or 




JAMES BUCHANAN 

From a photograph by Matthew B. 
Brady in the collection of the War 
Department., Washington., D. C. 



326 TJie GroivtJi of Sectional Feeling 

"Knownothing" party. This was a secret organization 
which tried to draw the attention of the country away 
from slavery by pointing out the dangers of foreign 
immigration. "America for Americans " was their ral- 
lying cry (§357). They were called " Knownothings" 
because when a member was asked about their plans he 
always replied, " I know nothing about them." 

But the people would not be drawn away from Kansas 
and slavery, and gave most of their votes to Buchanan, 
and the next largest number to Fremont. Although 
beaten, the Republicans celebrated as if they had won 
a victory, for all the free states but four had voted for 
Fremont. The Democrats carried all the slave states 
except ISIaryland, which went for Fillmore. The nation 
was now divided politically into a North and a South. 

414. The Dred Scott Decision and Its Results (1857). 
President Iluchanan, in his inaugural address, promised 
the people that the slavery question would soon be 
settled, but the Dred Scott case which he had in mind 
only drove the two sections farther apart. Dred Scott 
was a slave who sued for his freedom because his 
master had taken him from Missouri into Illinois and 
later into what is now Minnesota. The case finally 
reached the Supreme Court of the United States. The 
court decided three very much disputed questions : (/) 
That the slave was not included, either in the Declara- 
tion of Independence or in the Constitution, and was not, 
therefore, a citizen of the United States ; {2) that a slave- 
holder had a right to hold slaves in a territory, and that 
neither Congress nor the people of the territory had a 
right to interfere ; (j) that, therefore, the Missouri Com- 
promise was unconstitutional. 

The South received this decision with delight and the 
North with indignation. It looked as if slavery was to 
go everywhere, not only into the territories, but into the 

I Amendments, Article XIII.. Article XIV. 



Drifting Rapidly Apart 



327 



free states also. The court had decided every point in 
favor of the South, and had not only destroyed the 
Missouri Compromise, but Douglas' favorite doctrine of 
"popular sovereignty." The Democratic party at the 
North staggered under this blow. 

415. Lincoln's "House Divided Against Itself" 
Speech (1858). Now occurred a series of events which 
completely divided the Democratic party. 

In 1858 a United. States Senator was to be elected in 
Illinois. The Democrats of that state were more than 
ever resolved to reelect Douglas, since he had boldly 
opposed President 
Buchanan in regard 
to the Lecompton 
Constitution for 
Kansas. The Repub- 
licans in state con- 
vention declared 
that Abraham Lin- 
coln was their first 
and only choice. Fromaphotograpk 

At this convention the log cabin birthplace of Abraham Lincoln 

Lincoln delivered a speech that fixed upon him the eyes 
of the whole nation. He declared that "a house. divided 
against itself cannot stand"; that this country must 
become all slave or all free. These were startling 
opinions, but they showed that Abraham Lincoln was a 
true political prophet. 

Senator Douglas furiously attacked Lincoln's views 
before a great audience in Chicago. Lincoln was pres- 
ent, and the next evening made answer. Other speeches 
were made, each speaker feeling that he must answer 
the arguments of the other. 

416. The Lincoln-Douglas Debates and Their Effect. 
Lincoln challenged Douglas to debate the questions of 




328 



The Growth of Sectional Feeling 



the day before the people of Illinois. Douglas accepted, 

and during that summer seven "joint debates" were held 
in different towns. From miles and miles around the 
people came on foot, on horseback, in wagons, and on 
trains to hear the burning questions discussed by the 
two ablest debaters in Illinois. 




LINCOLN-DOUGLAS DEBATE AT FREEPORT 

What a difference in the two men as they appeared on 
the platform ! Douglas was short and squarely built. He 
spoke rapidly and powerfully, and carried his hearers by 
storm. He loved a hand-to-hand fight, and was the greatest 
off-hand debater in America. Lincoln was tall, slender, 
and awkward. He spoke slowly and calmly. His language 
was always simple, and often quaint and humorous. His 
plain, unpretending manner won its way to the hearts of 
the people. He was the one man Douglas feared. 

Lincoln arranged his arguments and put his questions 
on slavery so that Douglas by his answers was compelled 
either to please the people of Illinois and displease the 
people of the South, or to please the South and displease 
his own neighbors. 



Drifting Rapidly Apart 



329 




STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS 

From a photograph by 



As a result of the debate Douglas lost the support of 
the South, but won the senatorship. Lincoln, at the end 
of the campaign, was a man of 
national reputation, and invitations 
to speak in the cities of the East 
came to him. He had made himself 
a candidate for the Presidency. 

417. John Brown at Harper's 
Ferry (1859). In October, 1859, the 
country was startled by the news 
that John Brown, whom we have 
already met in Kansas, with about 
twenty others, had captured the 
United States arsenal at Harper's 
Ferry, Virginia, arrested white citi- 
zens, and freed some negro slaves. 
But the negroes did not rise and join 
him as he had hoped. Before he could Matthew B Brady inUe col 

•T lection of the War Depart- 

escape to the mountains he and his '"^«^' ^vashingto7i, d. c. 
men were captured, after a desperate resistance, by Colonel 
Robert E. Lee. He was tried, condemned, and hanged. 
Brown believed he was specially intended by Provi- 
dence to bring freedom to the slaves. Many Northern 

people condemned 
his conduct, but 
others regarded him 
as a martyr. The 
South was aroused by 
the awful fear of a 
slave rebellion, and 
>^ by the unfounded be- 
lief that Brown's raid 
JOHN BROWN'S FOKT was plauucd and sup- 

ported by the people of the North. The feeling between 
the two sections had now reached the danger point. 

'Coiiilitution. Article I., Seo. «, K 17. 




330 



TJic Growth of Scctiojurl Feeling 



418. The Charleston Convention Sphts the Demo- 
cratic Party (i860). The Democratic nnlional conven- 
tion met at Charleston, South Carolina, in April, i<S6o. 
The Southern delegates had already decided that they 
could not support Douglas and his doctrine of popular 
sovereignty, because they could Avin no territories by his 
plan. But the delegates from the free states supported 










':l f 




;-^ 



DELEGATES WITHDRAWING FROM THE CHARLESTON' CONVENTION 

Douglas, because, without him and popular sovereignty, 
they could not hope to carry a single Northern state. 
The delegates from several Southern states withdrew 
from the meeting and the convention broke up without 
nominating candidates. 

Another meeting was held in Baltimore and another 
secession took place. The seceding delegates nominated 
John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky for President, and 
those who remained chose their favorite, Stephen A. 
Douglas. Thus the party of Jefferson and Jackson was 
hopelessly divided, and the bonds of the Union were 
weakened. 

419. Lincoln Nominated at Chicago (i860). The 
Republicans had come to trust Lincoln as a safe and 
wise leader. And although William H. Seward had 



Drifting Rapidly Apart 



331 



been more prominent than Lincoln, men felt that 
Lincoln alone could carry the election in the border 
states against Douglas. It took but three ballots to 
nominate him. Hannibal Hamlin of Maine was selected 
for Vice-President. 

The platform declared: (/) That the Union is the 
source of our greatness at home and our honor abroad ; 
{2) that it is the right of each state to regulate its own 
institutions ; ( j) that freedom is the natural condition of 
a territory ; (^) that it is a false and dangerous doctrine 
to teach that the Constitution itself carries slavery into 




THE NOMINATION OF LINCOLN AT CHICAGO 

the territories ; (5) that Kansas ought to be admitted at 
once as a state under the Topeka Constitution. 

Still a fourth set of candidates entered the field. Bell 
of Tennessee and Everett of Massachusetts were put 
forward by the "Constitutional Union party" to repre- 
sent a large number of people who feared the radical 
men of both sections. They called on the people to 



332 



TJie GroivtJi of Sectional Feeliyig 



cease quarreling about slavery and to put their faith in 
" the Constitution of the country, the union of the states, 
and the enforcement of the laws." 

420. The Election of Lincoln and the Secession of 
South Carolina. Stephen A. Douglas, speaking day and 

night, was the great figure of 

the campaign. When he saw 

defeat coming he ceased to 

speak in the North, and went 

to plead with Southern men 

not to break up the Union, for 

"" already there were mutterings 

of the coming storm. He denied 

the right of secession, and let 

it be clearly understood that 

;' ^ he was opposed to such a move- 

\ ment. 

But of all the states usually 
Democratic, only Missouri 
remained faithful to Douglas. 
Breckinridge carried all the 
other slave states except Vir- 
ginia, Kentucky, and Tennes- 

vureCompany.whoo-a'ntheorig.nal g^^^ y^^ nearly OUC and a half 

million voters stood by Douglas, while Breckinridge had 
less than one million. Lincoln did not get quite two 
million votes, although he had a majority of the electoral 
vote. The two Southern candidates received nearly all 
their support from the South ; the two Northern candi- 
dates most of theirs from the North. 

The Republican party had won power. What would 
the South do? 

South Carolina naturally led the movement to secede 
from the Union. Soon after it was known that Lincoln 
had been elected, her legislature called a convention 




ABRAHAM LINCOLN 

From a rare photograph taken by 
Alexander Hester tn Chicago, iSoo, 
and toaned by the Chicago Hiotogra- 



Secession and Conciliation 



333 



which passed the " ordinance of secession" (December 
20, i860). The people of Charleston and of the state 
received the news with loud rejoicing. They built bon- 
fires, fired cannon, rang bells, paraded the streets, ran up 
the Palmetto flag, and declared that South Carolina was 
one of the independent nations of the world. 

SECESSION AND CONCILIATION 

421. Other States Secede; Formation of the Con- 
federacy, From the beginning of the government men 
had talked about secession, and at various times had 
declared the constitutional right of a state to secede. 
The South claimed that she was now putting that right 
into practice, while the North denied that any such 
right existed. By February i, 1861, six other states had 
followed the example of South Carolina: Mississippi, 
Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. (See 
map facing page 340.) The ma- 
jority of the people of these states 
joined enthusiastically in the 
work of secession, although there 
were many followers of Clay and 
lovers of the Union in parts of 
the South. Soon Southern Rep- 
resentatives and Senators were 
bidding adieu to the Union by 
farewell speeches in Congress. 
Some were defiant and threatened 
war, while others expressed regret 
at breaking away from a govern- 
ment which had benefited all. 

Delegates from the seven seced- 
ing states met at Montgomery, 
Alabama, and established a gov- 
ernment of their own under the name of the " Confederate 
States of America." Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was 




JEFFERSON DAVIS 

From a portrait painted by 
Broivne, >!0w in the Westmore- 
land Club, Richmond, Virginia 



334 



Tlie Growth of Sectional Feeling 




chosen President, and Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia, 
Vice-President. The Constitution of the United States, 

changed so as to make the states 
supreme, was taken as the Consti- 
tution of the Southern Confederacy, 
and the " Stars and Bars" adopted 
as their common flag. 

422, Buchanan's Hard Posi- 
tion. President Buchanan's term 
was about to end and a new party 
to come into power. The whole 
nation wondered whether Buchanan 
would check the secession move- 
ment by using the army and navy. 
He said, in his message to Congress, 
that no state had a constitutional 
ALEXANDER H. STEPHENS xi^ht to seccdc, but that hc had no 

From a photograph bv Matthew . . 

B. Brady in the cdllection of COUStltutlOUal ri2;ht tO COmpcl a 

the War Department, Wash- '^ ^ . 

ington, D. c. statc to comc back into the Union. 

This meant that vSecession was wrong, but could not be 
prevented. 

The Southern men in Buchanan's cabinet had great 
influence over him. As soon as they resigned their seats 
Northern men were put in their places, and the President 
took a stronger stand, sending an unarmed vessel loaded 
with supplies and soldiers to relieve Major Anderson, 
who held Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. The North 
applauded and the South denounced this act. The vessel 
was fired on by the Confederate batteries, and returned 
without relieving Anderson and his brave men. 

423. Efforts at Conciliation. Neither side wanted 
war. The seceding states desired to set up and carry on 
an independent government without war. The North 
wanted these states to come back into tlie Union without 
war. Great efforts were put forth to induce them to return. 



Secession and Conciliation 335 

The most important attempt in Congress was called the 
Crittenden Compromise. The most important attempt out 
of Congress was the work of the Peace Convention. 

424. The Crittenden Compromise. This plan was so 
named because its author was Senator Crittenden of Ken- 
tucky, a follower of Henry Clay. The main articles of 
his compromise were : (/) That all United States ter- 
ritory north of 36° 30' should be free, while all south 
of that line should be slave ; {2) that when the terri- 
tories came to be admitted as states they might decide 
for themselves whether they were to be free or slave ; 
and (j) that the Constitution should never be amended 
to give Congress the power to abolish or interfere with 
slavery in any state whose laws then permitted it. 

These points were considered by a committee of 
thirteen Senators. But though the Republicans did not 
believe in interfering with slavery in the states, they 
refused to agree to open the territories to slavery, and 
the Crittenden Compromise, to the sorrow of many 
people in both sections, ended in failure. Congress, how- 
ever, proposed that the Constitution be changed so that 
it could never be amended to abolish slavery in the 
states. Only Ohio and Maryland — one free and one 
slave state — ratified this amendment. 

425. The Peace Convention. Virginia had led in 
the formation of the Union, and she was not now willing 
to see it destroyed without an effort to save it. By the 
invitation of her legislature, delegates from twenty- 
one states met in Washington to settle the difficulties 
between the sections, but none of the seceded states sent 
delegates, and the plan of conciliation voted by the con- 
vention was rejected by Congress. 

426. Lincoln Prepares for Inauguration (1861), Dur- 
ing this exciting period Lincoln was at home anxiously 
v/atching the course of events, thoughtfully preparing 



336 Tlie Groivtli of Sectional Feeling 

his inaugural address, and wisely advising Union men. 
On his long journey to Washington he spoke to thou- 
sands who were eager to see and hear the man whose 
burden was greater than that which had yet fallen on 
any President. 

The Confederacy was being rapidly organized, and its 
Congress had already authorized Davis to obtain posses- 
sion of Forts Sumter and Pickens at once, " either by nego- 
tiation or force." Other states were expected to secede. 

The whole country was full of excitement, especially 
the city of Washington, where people were divdded in 
their sympathies. General Scott brought troops to the 
capital to preserve order. Rumors of a plot to assassi- 
nate Lincoln led him, by the advice of friends, to travel 
in secret from Philadelphia to Washington. 

427. Lincoln's Inaugural Address. The inaugural 
address was one of the most important ever written by 
a President of the United States. From it, friend and 
foe alike learned his views: (/) That the supreme aim 
of Lincoln would be to preserve the Union; (2) that "The 
union of the states is perpetual. No state can lawfully 
get out of the Union"; (j) that he had "no purpose, 
directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution 
of slavery in the states where it exists"; {4) that he 
would faithfully execute the laws of the Union in all 
the states, and that he would "hold, occupy, and pos- 
sess the property and places belonging to the govern- 
ment." He concluded : " In your hands, my dissatisfied 
fellow-countrymen, and not in mine, is the momentous 
issue of civil war. The government will not assail you. 
You can have no conflict without being yourselves the 
aggressors. We are not enemies but friends." 

This address greatly pleased the North, because it 
made saving the L^nion instead of opposing slavery the 
great question. Douglas and his thousands of followers 



The Beginnings of the War 



337 



enthusiastically supported Lincoln in his resolution to 
preserve the Union. 

428. Lincoln Forms His Cabinet and Waits. Like 
his inaugural, Lincoln's cabinet was planned with a view 
to unite Union men. William H. 
Seward, the Secretary of State, 
represented the Eastern Repub- 
licans ; he had been a Whig and 
was Lincoln's strongest rival for 
the Presidency (§401). Salmon 
P. Chase, Secretary of the Treas- 
ury, who represented the Free 
Soil Democrats, had also been a 
prominent candidate. With but 
one exception, the other members 
of the cabinet were border state 
men. 

Neither Lincoln nor Davis 
wanted to strike the first blow. 
Thus far the open acts of seces- 
sion and of seizing national 
property put the South at a disadvantage, although no 
battle had been fought. But the time for deeds was at 
hand. 




WILLIAM H. SEWARD 

Prom a photograph by Matthew 
B. Brady in the collection of the 
War Department, Washing- 
ton, D. C. 



THE WAR FOR THE UNION 

THE BEGINNINGS OF THE WAR 

429. The Attack on Fort Sumter. Early in March Lin- 
coln learned that Major Anderson, for want of food, could 
hold out but a few weeks longer. A fleet with soldiers 
and supplies was sent to his relief, but it arrived too late. 

By order of Jefferson Davis, the nineteen batteries 
in Charleston Harbor opened fire on Fort Sumter and 
its little band of one hundred and twenty-eight men. 
The people of the city in large numbers witnessed the 



338 The War for the Union 

opening spectacle of the war. To them the scene was 
inspiring. Little did they know then what war meant 

The garrison bravely defended its flag all day. By 
noon next day the fort was on fire and the walls were 
broken in many places. Smoke and cinders almost 
choked the men. Some lay upon the ground and cov- 
ered their heads with wet cloths. Others crept to the 
portholes for a breath of fresh air. Explosion followed 
explosion, and yet the men would not surrender. Now 
and then they fired a gun to show that they were " hold- 
ing the fort." 

On Sunday afternoon (April 14th), Major Anderson, 
without the loss of a man, with his torn flag flying and 
drums beating, gave up the fort to General Beauregard, 




,4 



^,1 



-If."-' ¥\ iW^ 'ii-i-"^ '■ '^1 *s «2j* - iJ>' 4 ^- K^/^ 

r. 

From a war-time pbotofrapb 
THE INTERIOR OF FORT SUMTER AFTER THE BOMBARDMENT 

the Confederate commander, Charleston was wild with 
excitement and there was rejoicing all over the Con- 
federacy. 

430. Lincoln's Call to Arms and the Rising of the 
North. ( )n Sunday evening Douglas made a long visit 
at the White House. On Monday Lincoln sent forth 
his call for seventy-five thousand men, and Dougkis 
informed his followers that he stood by the President in 



The Beginnings of the War 



339 



his efforts to "preserve the Union, maintain the govern- 
ment, and defend the Federal capital." 

Public meetings were held in city, town, and country. 
The pulpit, the platform, and the press called on men 
to defend the Union. Flags were flung to the breeze, and 



^5:5 




"'- y^ '^V. ' ^ 



^O- 



THE WAR SPIRIT IN THE NORTH 



the fife and drum joined in kindling the war spirit. On 
every hand resounded the tramp of volunteers. From 
farm and field, store a,nd shop, factory and foundry, school 
and college, from every w^alk in life, came sons and 
fathers to answer with their lives. The foreign immi- 
grant and the native-born American marched side by 
side. A mighty wave of patriotism swept over the North, 
In ten weeks, more than three hundred thousand men 
were under arms. 

431. Other States Secede; Border States Cling to 
the Union. The surrender of Fort Sumter and Lincoln's 
call to arms aroused the war feeling of the Confederacy 
to a high pitch. Everywhere, as in the North, nothing 
but wai ; war! was heard, and soon volunteers by the 
thousands were marching to the strains of " Dixie." The 
Southern people now felt sure that Lincoln and the 
abolitionists were coming down to invade their homes 



340 



The War for the Union 




THE WAR SPIRIT IN THE SOUTH 



and free their slaves. Accordingly Arkansas, North 
Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia left the Union. 

The withdrawal of Virginia was of immense advantage 
to the seceded states, for it gave them a base of operations 

near Washington, Rich- 
mond, for a capital city, 
^"and Robert E. Lee, their 
greatest soldier. These ad- 
^_^ vantages were partly offset 
/ by the fact that forty-five 
counties of Virginia west 
-' of the mountains refused 
to join the Confederacy, 
and were later admitted 
into the Union as West 
Virginia(i 863).' "East Ten- 
nessee" also threatened to 
set up as a state, and more than thirty thousand of her 
sons joined the Union army. (See map facing this page.) 
The border slave states, Delaware, Maryland, Ken- 
tucky, and Missouri, remained in the Union. Although 
the governors of some of them refused to heed Lincoln's 
call, these states furnished their share of boys in blue. 
Many of their citizens, however, 
went to fight for the Confederacy. 
432. The Strength of the Two 
Sections. In the great struggle 
about to begin the North had many 
advantages. She had a population 
of twenty-two million, while the 
South had but nine million. Be- 
sides, four Southern states did not 
join the Confederacy. (See map facing this page.) In 
wealth and in resources we have already seen that 
the North was far superior (§§ 356-376). The Union 



/ 



THE "STARS AND BARS" 

The adopted flafr of the Con- 
federacy 




' Constitution, Article IV., Sec. 3. 



TJie Beginnings of the War 



341 



troops could thus be better fed, better clothed, and better 
armed than the Confederates. Then, too, the North 
controlled the navy and owned dockyards for building 
and repairing warships, while the South had neither. 

Yet the conflict was not altogether unequal, for the 
Confederates were fighting on their own soil, and were 
nerved by the thought of defending their homes. They 
knew every stream, hill, and road over which the armies 
moved, and often learned of the movement of the Union 
forces before it was made. The plantation life of the 
vSouth, too, made her men more used to firearms than the 
men of the North who lived in cities. It is not surprising, 
therefore, that the struggle 
was much longer and harder 
than many people believed it 
would be. 

433- Washington in Dan- 
ger. The North was now 
alarmed for the safety of Wash- 
ington, and two days after 
Lincoln's call, the Sixth 
Massachusetts Regiment was 
marching to the defense of the 
national capital. It was com- 
pelled to fight its way through 
a mob in the streets of Balti- 
more, killing some of the rioters 
and losing some of its own number. Pennsylvania volun- 
teers were also promptly on their way to Washington, 
but being unarmed, they went around Baltimore. 

Other troops hastening to the point of danger were 
compelled to go by way of Annapolis. Not until the last of 
April did ten thousand troops make Washington secure. 

434. Military Situation in the East At the opening 
of the war, General Winfield vScott (^ 393) had command 




A SOUTHERN SOLDIKR 



342 



TJie War for the Union 



of all the Union forces, while Oencral Beauregard com- 
manded the Confederates gathered at Manassas. In 
addition to the troops at Washington under General Irvin 
McDowell, other Union troops under General Patterson 
were watching the region around Harper's Ferry and 
Winchester, where General Joseph E. Johnston was 
collecting a Confederate army. Western Virginia was 
protected by young General George B. McClellan with 
troops gathered mainly from Ohio. 

Since Richmond had been selected as the new Confed- 
erate capital, the Union army at Washington had the 
twofold duty of protecting the nation's capital and of 
attacking the capital of the Confederacy. A similar prob- 
lem faced the Southern forces. Washington and Rich- 

mond, therefore, became two main 
points of attack and defense dur- 
ing the war. 

435. Bull Run and Its Les- 
sons. When General McDowell's 
forces grew to about forty thou- 
sand men, the cry of " On to 
^^ Richmond!" arose from press 
Sl'^<\ ^'''^^ people, and in the middle of 
July the Union forces moved in 
the direction of the Confederates. 
The Confederate army which, 
unknown to the Union generals, 
had been reenforced by Johnston's 
troops, was found thirty miles 
from Washington, beyond a small 
stream called Bull Run, and near the railroad station of 
Manassas Junction. The attack began on the morning 
of the 2ist, and in a short time the Union troops 
were driving the Confederates before them. (See map, 
page 356.) 




THOMAS JONATHAN ("STONE- 
WALL") JACKSON 

From a war-time f/iotofrrapli, 
taken on the field by Mat then' B. 
Brady, in the collection of the War 
Department, IVashingtony D. C. 



The Beginnings of the War 



343 




Only Jackson's men seemed able to stand the Union 
attack. " Look at Jackson's brigade! " cried General Bee, 
a Confederate officer, to 
his retreating troops. "It 
stands like a stone wall ! " 
They rallied and renewed 
the battle. In the after- 
noon the Confederates 
struck McDowell's line 
in both flank and rear. It 
wavered and broke, and 
soon the whole Union 
army was running madly 
away toward Washing- 
ton. The city, too, was 
panic-stricken with the 
fear of falling into Con- 
federate hands. But 
Beauregard's army had 
suffered too severely to 
pursue far. The North was astonished, and began to 
learn that it takes time and hard work to train an army. 

To the South the victory of Bull Run brought joy, but 
in the end it was of little benefit, for many Southerners 
believed that the war was over, and others that the North 
could not fight. The thinking men in both sections, 
however, now saw that the war was to be longer than 
they had believed. Congress voted to raise half a million 
men and half a billion dollars to carry on the contest. 

436. McClellan Drills the Army of the Potomac. 
The meaning of a battle is not always measured by its size. 
The success of General McClellan at Rich Mountain and 
Beverly saved "West Virginia" to the Union, and made 
him the military favorite of the North. After the dis- 
aster at Bull Run he was given command of the Army 



GEORGE BRINTON MCCLELLAN 

From a ivar-litne photograph in the his- 
torical collection of the Military Order of 
the Loyal Legion of the United States, Cadet 
Armory, Boston, Massachusetts 



344 



The War for the Union 



of the Potomac. For months he drilled and organized the 
"green" troops that kept pouring into Washington, and 
thus fitted the Army of the Potomac for the hard work 
which lay before it. 

FOREIGN NATIONS AND THE BLOCKADE OF SOUTHERN PORTS 

437. Foreign Feeling About the War. Each section 
counted 3n sympathy from Europe, especially from Eng- 
land. The South knew that thousands of Englishmen 
earned their daily bread by working in cotton mills, and 
believed that, rather than suffer injury to her cotton 

industry, England would 
recognize the independence 
of the Confederacy. But the 
South was disappointed because 
English mechanics and factory 
hands were willing to suffer 
rather than aid slavery. 

The North, in turn, remem- 
bered that England had led the 
way in abolishing slavery, and 
therefore felt that Englishmen 
should heartily support the Union 
cause. She, too, was disappointed, 
for although England did not 
recognize the independence of 
the Confederacy, she formed an 
agreement with France, imme- 
diately after the attack on Fort Sumter, to recognize the 
"war rights" of the Confederate States and to act as neu- 
trals in the contest. This hasty action angered the North. 
Many Englishmen believed at that time that the success 
of the Confederacy would be of great benefit to England. 
Russia was more cautious and was generally favorable 
to Northern interests, but the Emperor of France wished 
for the downfall of the Union. 




A NORTHERN INFANTRYMAN 




Foreign Nations and the Southern Blockade 345 

438. Southern Ports Blockaded. President Lincoln 
saw that if the ports of the seceding states could be shut 
up so tight that the r-^ 

four and a half mil- v , ^'^ ^) <L. .^ "\ 

lion bales of cotton 
exported every year 
could not reach 
Europe, a deadly 
blow would be in- 
flicted upon the Con- 
federacy. In April, 
1 86 1, he declared all -_, 
the ports from Vir- '~ 
ginia to Texas block- 
aded, and ordered 
war vessels to stand 
guard and prevent 
tlie ships of all 
nations from going in or out of these ports. (See map 
facing page 340.) 

But it was easier commanded than accomplished, for 
the American navy was then made up of only about 
ninety vessels. Some of these were out of repair, others 
were in foreign seas, and over half of them were sailing 
vessels. Then, too, the little navy had to help the army 
by carrying supplies and troops, to bombard forts along 
the coast, to help drive the Confederates from the Mis- 
sissippi and give battle to their war vessels. 

439. Southern Blockade Runners and Privateers. 
The blockade raised the price of cotton in Europe and 
lowered it in the South. Small and swift vessels were 
built in Europe to steal into Southern ports on dark and 
stormy nights for cargoes of cotton. The " runners " then 
tried to escape to the West Indies, where the cotton was 
reshipped for Europe. But as compared with the export 



A BLOCKADE RUNNER LOADED WITH COTTON FOR 
EUROPE 



34^ The War for the Union 

before the war, only one bale in a hundred now reached 
Europe. As a result, great suffering was caused in the 
Confederacy, for that section had depended on cotton 
to buy manufactured articles in Europe. Cotton was 
" king " no more, and a deathblow had been aimed at 
the Confederacy. 

The blockade was the North's deadly weapon, and 
when it was found that Europe would not join in break- 
ing it, as had been expected, "privateering" became the 
main reliance of the Confederacy (§§237, 317). Armed 
Confederate vessels put to sea and destroyed the mer- 
chant ships of the North wherever found. Among the 
first and most successful of these privateers was the 
" Sumter." In a month she had destroyed commerce 
worth thousands of dollars. Half a dozen vessels were 
sent in hot pursuit, but she continued her destructive 
career for more than six months. 

440. The " Trent " Affair (1861). To stir up Europe 
to aid the Confederacy, Davis appointed John Slidell 
and James M. Mason as commissioners to England and 
France. They ran the blockade, reached Havana, Cuba, 
and took passage on the English steamer "Trent." 
Captain Wilkes, of the United States war sloop "San 
Jacinto," searched the "Trent" and compelled her to 
surrender Mason and Slidell. England was ablaze with 
indignation at this insult to her flag, and had Queen 
Victoria not modified her minister's demands, war must 
have resulted. 

The people of the United States praised Captain Wilkes 
and declared that the men should not be surrendered. 
Each nation, in the excitement, had forgotten its own 
history, but both Lincoln and Seward remembered that 
the searching of American vessels was one cause of the 
War of 1812. Accordingly the prisoners were given up 
to England and a great crisis was safely passed. 



Foreign Nations and the Southern Blockade 347 



441. The " M'irrimac" Threatens the Blockade. 

One opportunity to break the awful grip of the blockade 
remained. When the Confederates seized Norfolk they 
found there the sunken wooden warship, " Merrimac." 
She was raised, renamed the "Virginia," and given a 
double coat of iron. Commanded by Captain Buchanan, 
she steamed slowly into Hampton Roads to destroy the 
Union fleet (March 8, 1862). The ships and the shore 




THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE "MONITOR" AND "MERRIMAC" 

batteries rained shot and shell upon the monster, but 
they produced no more effect than hail on a tin roof. 
The "Merrimac" made direct for the "Cumberland," 
and drove her great ram into the Union vessel's side. 
With her flags flying and her guns firing, the "Cum- 
berland" went down. The "Congress" surrendered 
and was set on fire. Satisfied with the day's work, the 
" Merrimac " steamed across Hampton Roads and took 
shelter under the Confederate guns. It looked as if the 
blockade might be broken and Washington bombarded. 
442. The "Monitor" Saves the Blockade. But by 
the light of the burning " Congress " a queer-looking 
object came into Hampton Roads and took position so 
as to protect the "Minnesota." It was the "Monitor." 



348 The War for the Union 

John Ericsson's great invention, hastening to save the 
Union fleet. She was built in the Brooklyn Navy Yard, 
and commanded by Lieutenant Worden. Her iron deck 
was only three feet above water. On this was a revolving 
iron cylinder or turret in which were two immense guns. 
The turret was moved by machinery, and thus the guns 
could find the enemy in any position. Very appropri- 
ately, men said the " Monitor" looked like "a cheese box 
on a raft." 

When the "Merrimac" appeared again next day a 
battle royal began. After two hours an officer of the 
"Merrimac" asked a gunner why he had stopped firing 
at the " Monitor." " I can do her as much damage by 
snapping my thumb at her every two minutes and a half," 
'was the reply. Neither vessel could destroy the other. 

It was a drawn battle, but with the advantage on the 
Union side, for Washington and the blockade were 
safe, and the United States could build any number of 
"Monitors," while the Confederacy could build only a 
few ironclads. 

The battle between the "Monitor" and the "Merri- 
mac" changed the navies of the world. The age of iron 
war vessels had come. Strangely enough neither vessel 
did much more service. The " Merrimac " was blown 
up when Norfolk was captured, and the "Monitor" was 
lost in a storm off the coast of North Carolina (1863). 

CAMPAIGNS FOR THE WESTERN BORDER STATES AND THE 
MISSISSIPPI 

443. The Struggle Begins in Missouri. While these 
events were taking place in the East, others of equal 
importance were occurring in the West. Both the Union 
and the Confederate governments saw the importance of 
getting control of the border slave states, for it was not 
yet known which side they would take. The first clash 
came in Missouri. The Union party, guided by the 



Campaigns for the IVcstcrn Border States 349 

wisdom of Francis P. Blair, and led by General Nathaniel 
Lyon, were too quick for the friends of the Confederacy, 
and, although the brave Lyon was defeated and killed 
at Wilson's Creek, the Confederates were finally driven 
into Arkansas. This result was greatly aided by the 
loyalty to the Union of the Germans of St. Louis. The 
winning of Missouri was of immense advantage to the 
Union cause. 

444. The First Confederate Line of Defense (1862). 
Meanwhile the Confederates were establishing their first 
line of defense in Kentucky, extending from Mill Spring 
through Bowling Green to Columbus 
on the Mississippi. Fort Henry on 
the Tennessee and Fort Donelson on 
the Cumberland furnished the key to 
this position. (See map, page 351.) 

The majority of the people of 
Kentucky regarded the Confederate 
advance as an invasion, and Union 
feeling in that state was greatly 
strengthened. General H.W.Halleck, a southern battle-flag 
commanding the Union forces in the West, was gathering 
troops at St. Louis, Cairo, and Louisville. Hostilities 
soon began. Early in 1862 General George H. Thomas 
routed the Confederates near Mill Spring, and drove 
them across the Tennessee border. 

The next blow struck the center of the Confederate 
line. In February, General Grant, aided by Commodore 
Foote with a fleet of gunboats, moved against Fort 
Henry. The fleet easily captured the place, and the 
whole Union force then moved against Fort Donelson, 
only a few miles distant. The gunboats failed to make 
an impression on the stronghold. 

445. Grant's Victory at Fort Donelson. While Grant 
was consulting Foote, the Confederates made a desperate 




350 



The War for the Union 



attempt to break through the Federal line. They were 
about to succeed when Grant came upon the field, and 
by a few well directed orders, drove them back at all 




I. ,i^' 






,ii ,l'" 






,jf '••■ 



ONE OF FOOTE'S GUNBOATS USED IN THE BATTLES ON THE OHIO AND 
MISSISSIPPI RIVERS 

points. To the Confederate general's request for terms 
of surrender, Grant wrote his famous reply : " No terms 
except unconditional and immediate surrender can be 
accepted. I propOo'e to move immediately upon your 
works." 

General Buckner surrendered over twelve thousand 
soldiers, forty pieces of artillery, and a large quantity of 
military stores. This victory forced the Confederates to 
abandon Bowling Green and Columbus and to evacuate 
the city of Nashville. Kentucky and most of Tennessee 
were now under Federal control. There was alarm and 
grief throughout the South, while the North rejoiced over 
its first great victory of the war. (See map, page 35 1.) 

446. Pea Ridge and Pittsburg Landing. After the 
Confederates were driven from the border states, the 
possession of the Mississippi became the most important 
object of the Federal forces in the West. All the strong 
places along the river had been well fortified and the 
undertaking was one of great difficulty. On both sides 
of the river there was a forward movement. General 
Curtis dealt a crushing blow to the Confederate cause 



Campaigns for tJie Western Border States 351 



west of the Mississippi by winning the desperate battle 
of Pea Ridge, Arkansas, early in March (1862). (See 
map below.) 

Meanwhile General Halleck had ordered General Buell 
to unite his forces with Grant's army near Pittsburg 
Landing on the Tennessee. But Generals A. S. Johns- 
ton and Beauregard, the Confederate commanders, had 
already joined their forces at Corinth, Mississippi, and 
hastened to attack Grant before he could be reenforced 
by Buell. They had about forty thousand men, while 
Grant alone had only thirty-three thousand. The attack 
was made with terrific fury (April 6th) and continued all 
day. Grant was driven back from Shiloh Church, the key 
to his position. But that night twenty thousand of Buell's 




CAMPAIGNS FOR THE WESTERN KORDER STATES 

Showing the Confederate fir st aiid second lines of defense in 1S62. The first turnitig 

point of the war 

men arrived, and, after eight hours' fighting the next day, 
Beauregard gave the order to retreat. The total Union 
loss was greater than the Confederates', but the latter 
lost General A. S. Johnston, a great soldier and a true man. 



352 The War for the Union 

447. Capture of Island No. 10 and Corinth (1862). 

On the same day Island No. 10, a Confederate strong- 
hold commanding the Mississippi below Columbus, fell 
a prey to General John Pope and Commodore Foote. 
Pope also brought his forces to Pittsburg Landing, and 
the great army of one hundred thousand men com- 
manded by Halleck moved slowly to Corinth, which fell 
without a blow, thus putting the Union forces in control 
of the most important western railroad center of the 
Confederacy. Commodore Foote forced the surrender 
of Memphis, and the Mississippi was open to Vicksburg. 
The Union advance now occupied a line in the Missis- 
sippi Valley extending from Pea Ridge through Memphis 
and Corinth to the vicinity of Chattanooga. (See map, 

page 35I-) 

448. The Fall of New Orleans. Many fortified places 
along the Atlantic were already falling into the hands of 
the Union fleet and army. Among them were Hatteras 
Inlet, Roanoke Island and Newbern, Port Royal and 
Beaufort, and Fort Pulaski at the mouth of the Savan- 
nah River. Thus the blockade was made stronger. 
Moreover, the great seaport of the Confederacy was now 
doomed. 

New Orleans was the cotton depot of the South and 
controlled the lower Mississippi. Seventy-five miles below 
the city, directly opposite each other, were two powerful 
forts, Saint Philip and Jackson. Below the forts two iron 
cables had been stretched across the river, while above 
lay a fleet of gunboats. The task of beating this force 
and capturing the city was assigned to Captain David G. 
Farragut, commanding a large fleet, and General Benja- 
min F. Butler with an army of fifteen thousand men. 

The fleet cut the cables and for six days and nights 
the opposing forces poured shot and shell into each 
other. To shorten the work, Farragut ran his fleet past 



Campaigns for the Western Border States 353 

the forts and destroyed the Confederate boats. Terror 
now reigned in New Orleans. Hundreds fled from the 
city, and thousands of bales of cotton were given to the 
flames. On April 27th the " Stars and Stripes " floated 
once more over New Orleans. This victory left but two 
Confederate strongholds on the Mississippi, Port Hud- 
son and Vicksburg. Captain Farragut was made a Rear 
Admiral. 

449. Bragg Invades Kentucky; Perryville and Mur- 
freesboro. In order to offset the effect of these victories 
and check the Federal advance down the Mississippi, the 
Confederates resolved on a bold stroke. General Bragg, 
who had taken Beauregard's place, suddenly moved 
northward across Tennessee and into Kentucky. The 
border states were once more in danger. General Buell 
was obliged to hasten with all speed to head him off. 
The race was for Louisville. Buell not only won the 
race, but fought Bragg at Perryville, October 8th. (See 
map, page 351.) After the battle the Confederates 
retreated southward, carrying a long train of supplies. 
They had published a strong appeal for Kentuckians 
to join them, and had even brought thousands of mus- 
kets to arm recruits, but only a few enlisted. 

Grant, in command of the Army of the Tennessee, 
had been able to send only a part of his force to Buell's 
aid, for Generals Price and Van Dorn, cooperating with 
Bragg, prevented him. The Confederates, after Grant 
had defeated, but failed to capture, a part of their army 
at luka, attacked Rosecrans at Corinth October 4th, but 
were repulsed. They were driven southward and their 
army was badly shattered. 

Rosecrans was now put in Buell's place in command 
of the Army of the Cumberland, and after marching 
from Nashville found Bragg's army in winter quarters 
at Murfreesboro on Stone River. Just at the close of 



354 TJic War for the Union 

the old and the opening of the new year, a terrific three 
days' battle was fought. The Union loss was the greater, 
but the Confederates left the field. The efforts of the 
Confederacy to hold Kentucky or even Tennessee seemed 
doomed to failure. (See map, page 351.) 

BLOW AND QOUNTER BLOW IN THE EAST 

450. The Beginnings of the Peninsular Campaign ; 
Battle of Fair Oaks (1862). We must now turn our 
attention to the war in the East, where the Union army 
had already made its second effort to capture Richmond. 
During the fall and winter (i 861-1862) the people of the 
North grew impatient because McClellan delayed so long 
in attacking the Confederates. 

Both Washington and Richmond could be approached 
in three ways : (/) By a direct land route ; {2) by way of 
the Shenandoah Valley ; ( j) by Chesapeake Bay and the 
peninsula between the James and the York rivers. Which- 
ever route was chosen, the other two must be guarded to 
prevent a counter invasion. (See map, page 356.) 

Early in March McClellan, with the main Union army, 
started for Richmond by the third route, because he 
could go most of the way by water. General McDowell 
was to cooperate with McClellan by moving toward Rich- 
mond by way of Fredericksburg, while Generals Banks 
and Fremont were to guard the Shenandoah region. 
The main army landed on the lower end of the peninsula 
and found its way blocked by the fortifications of York- 
town. After a month's siege, the Confederates slipped 
away unharmed. 

McClellan then began the march up the peninsula, and 
fought his way to White House Landing on the Pamun- 
key, almost opposite Richmond. (See map, page 356.) 
A part of the army crossed the river to Fair Oaks, where 
General Joseph E. Johnston attacked it with great fury 
in a two days' battle. The Union troops lost more men 



Blow and Counter Bloiv in the East 



355 



than the Confederates, but, rcenforced by General Sum- 
ner, they held their ground and probably saved the 
entire Union army from destruction. 

451. Stonewall Jackson's Raid. McClellan expected 
McDowell to join him at White House Landing, but that 
officer had been unexpectedly called back to shield Wash- 
ington from General Jackson, already known as "Stone- 
wall" Jackson (§435), who was dashing through the 
Shenandoah Valley in one of the most brilliant cam- 
paigns of the war. He outgeneraled and defeated both 
Banks and Fremont, and in three weeks was back on the 
peninsula. To keep the Union forces perplexed and 
Washington alarmed, General Stuart's dashing Confed- 
erate cavalry circled McClellan's army, tore up railroad 

tracks, and burned carloads of 

' . ,1 

supplies. By these two raids 
McDowell was prevented from 
joining McClellan, whose 
advance on Richmond was 
checked. 

452. The "Seven Days' 
Battle." General Robert E. 
Lee now took command of the 
Confederate army. Aided by 
the raids of Jackson and Stuart, 
he began a series of terrific 
assaults upon the Union army 
known as the " Seven Days' 
Battle." The last battle of the 
series, Malvern Hill (July ist), 
resulted in Lee's repulse. (See 
map, page 356.) Nevertheless, 
McClellan retreated to Harrison's Landing. The Union 
army was now farther from Richmond than before. The 
loss on both sides in this campaign had been enormous. 




';^ 



ROBERT EDWARD LEE 

From a portj-ait painted by Broivne, 

flow in the Westmoreland Club, Rick- 

mo)id, Virginia 



356 



TJic War for the Union 



The Federal forces sutfered greatly from the swampy 
and unhealthy condition of the peninsula. 

Lincoln now called for more troops and made General 
Halleck commander over all the Union armies, although 




T4 <0 




THE PENINSULAR CAMPAIGNS 

Also showing the operations around Richmond and the campaigns into Maryland 
and Pennsylvania 

McClellan remained in command of the Army of the 
Potomac. McClellan's plan of capturing Richmond, how- 
ever, was given up and the forces of McDowell, Banks, 
and Fremont were united under the name of the Army 
of Virginia, with General Pope as commander (§447). 



Blolo and Counter Blow in the East 357 

453. Lee Strikes Back; Second Battle of Bull Run 
(August, 1862). While McClellan was withdrawing his 
army to Washington, General Lee struck quickly at 
Pope's army. The blow was delivered on the ill-fated 
field of Bull Run. The fight was terrific and the Union 
troops were defeated and fell back to Washington. Here 
McClellan assumed command of both armies, reorganized 
them, and inspired them with fresh courage. 

454. Lee Invades Maryland; Battle of Antietam 
(1862). Instead of attacking Washington, Lee next 
moved northward, crossed the Potomac, and was upon 
the soil of Maryland, Partly to support Lee, Bragg was 
making his famous dash for Louisville (§ 449). (See map, 
page 356.) 

McClellan meanwhile moved along the north bank of 
the Potomac River till he met Lee's advance near An- 
tietam Creek. One of the greatest battles of the war 
resulted (September 17th). But the boys in blue gained 
ground and Lee, greatly outnumbered, withdrew across 
the Potomac. The country blamed the Union general 
for not attacking Lee as he crossed the river, and Lincoln 
gave the command of the Army of the Potomac to General 
Burnside. 

455. Beginning to Uproot Slavery. In his inaugural 
address Lincoln had declared that he had no intention of 
interfering with slavery in the states where it already 
existed. Congress also said that it had no purpose but 
to "maintain the supremacy of the Constitution and to 
preserve the Union." The people of the North supported 
Lincoln and Congress in their resolution to let slavery 
alone in the states where it already existed. 

But it was difficult to let slavery alone. Many negroes 
ran away to the Union armies. What should be done 
with them ? General Butler called them " contraband of 
war," and made use of them in any way he could. The 



358 The War for the Union 

Confederates, moreover, used the slaves as servants in 
the army and as laborers on the fortifications. Slaves 
cared for the families of the Southern soldiers and raised 
supplies to support the Southern armies. Thus the negro 
was helping to destroy the Union. 

When the North began to see these facts, and to 
realize that the. war was to be long and to cost millions 
of money and the lives of thousands of her sons, public 
opinion grew more and more hostile to slavery. From 
his boyhood days Lincoln had hated slavery but not 
the slaveholder. In the great debates with Douglas he 
declared that he had no prejudice against the Southern 
people. "They are", he said, "just what we would be in 
their situation." Lincoln now moved steadily against 
slavery, as fast as public opinion was ready. In March, 
1862, he recommended, and Congress passed, a law 
encouraging the loyal slave states to free their negroes 
by agreeing to pay the owners for them. But public 
opinion in these states was still strongly opposed to 
emancipation. Even Kentucky, the state in which 
Lincoln was born, refused to accept pay for the slaves. 

456. The Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln was 
sorely disappointed that the Union slave states refused 
to abolish slavery, as he thought such action would be a 
deathblow to the Confederacy. He resolved to strike 
the fatal blow himself. In August, 1862, he read a proc- 
lamation of emancipation to his cabinet, but it was 
agreed to wait till the Union armies had won a signal 
victory before publishing it. 

When Lee, with his victorious army, boldly crossed 
the Potomac, Lincoln made a solemn vow that if Mc- 
Clellan drove him back he would send the proclamation 
after him. While Lee was slowly withdrawing south- 
ward, after the bloody field of Antietam, Lincoln issued 
his preliminary proclamation, declaring that on January 



Bloiv and Counter Blozv in the East 359 

I, 1863, " all persons held as slaves in any state, the people 
whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United 
States, shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free." 

The proclamation was purely "a war measure," and 
issued by Lincoln under his authority as commander-in- 
chief of the army. Not a negro in the loyal slave states 
nor in the regions held by the Union armies was set free 
by this decree. Lincoln had no authority to go further. 
Only Congress and the people could abolish slavery 
everywhere. The South, of course, disregarded " the 
three months' notice," and on the first day of January, 
1863, the formal proclamation was sent forth. 

457. Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville. General 
Burnside felt that he must act more quickly than 
McClellan had done. He immediately prepared for a 
third advance on Richmond, crossed the Rappahannock, 
and led the Union forces directly against Lee, whose 
men were protected by the strongly fortified heights of 
FrederickvSburg. (See map, page 356.) But the task was 
impossible, and Burnside's army was repulsed with fright- 
ful slaughter (December 13, 1862). After this defeat, 
" Fighting Joe " Hooker succeeded to the command, but 
months were needed for the army to recover. 

During the winter and spring of 1863 Hooker was 
busy preparing his forces. When ready he tried to get 
around Lee's army by a march up the Rappahannock. 
He crossed and attacked the Confederates at Chan- 
cellorsville. (See map, page 356.) Although Hooker had 
about twice as many men, he permitted Stonewall Jackson 
to make a rapid march and surprise and rout his right 
flank. Hooker himself was stunned by a cannon ball and 
was unable, for some hours, to give orders. A large part 
of liis force was not brought into action, while the rest 
was defeated. This was the bloodiest battle thus far, 
over thirty thousand men being lost by the two armies. 

I Constitution, Article II., Sec. 2. 
•1 Aincadments, Article XIII. 



360 



The War for the Union 



The South mourned the loss of her most daring general, 
Stonewall Jackson, who had been accidentally shot by 
his own men. 

458. Gettysburg (1863). Elated by the victories of 
Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, the South called 
upon Lee to carry the war into Northern territory and 
to compel the Union government to make a favorable 
peace. He commanded the best army ever mustered 
under the " Stars and Bars." It was over seventy thou- 
sand strong and was full of enthusiasm. On June 27th 
it was once more on Maryland soil, and pushed rapidly 
into Pennsylvania in the direction of Harrisburg. The 

North was full of alarm, and 
Lincoln called for one hundred 
and twenty thousand militia 
from the surrounding states. 
At this critical moment General 
George G. Meade was given 
command of the army of the 
Potomac. He had about ninety 
thousand fighting men. 

On July 1st the armies faced 
each other at Gettysburg, the 
Confederates occupying Semi- 
nary Ridge, while the Union 
forces took post on Cemetery 
.■ ..-.■■ ^ . Ridge. (vSee map, page 356.) 

the possession of the Military Order o "^ I'ro^--/ 

of the Loyal Legion of the United The battle raged for three days. 

States, Cadet Armorv, Boston, " ■[ 

Massachusetts Qu tlic first day the two armies 

did some sharp fighting. The Union advance was driven 
back, and defeat threatened till General Hancock came 
to the rescue. 

On the next day both generals had their troops in 
position. Little Roundtop, on Cemetery Ridge, was 
the key to the Union position. This the Confederates 




GEORGE G. MEADE 

Prom a ivar-tinie photograph noiu in 



Blow and Counter Blow in the East 



361 




A CONFEDERATE SHARPSHOOTER HID- 
DEN BY THE FOLIAGE OF THE TREES 



assailed, and the battle raged furiously up and down its 

slopes, but General Warren defended it successfully and 

the Confederates were finally 

beaten back. In another part 

of the field, however, they 

gained ground and captured 

some artillery. 

459. Pickett's Charge. 
Concealed from view by the 
forest on the slopes of Semi- 
nary Ridge, General Lee, on 
July 3d, massed the flower of 
his army for a last desperate 
assault upon the Union center. 
At midday occurred a fearful artillery duel ; Lee was 
trying to silence Meade's guns. While the clouds of 
smoke rolled away, fifteen thousand Confederates, formed 
like a vast wedge and led by General Pickett, were seen 
moving across the valley. (See picture facing this page.) 
Nearly a mile away the Union forces under Hancock were 
viewing the onrushing lines of gray. Half the distance 
was passed when the Union artillery blazed forth. Great 
holes were torn in the Confederate ranks. They never 
faltered, but closed up and moved on. The long line of 
Union rifles sent forth their rain of death. The ranks 
grew thin. But on they came. General Armistead, lead- 
ing Pickett's advance, broke through Hancock's line and 
fell waving his hat on the point of his sword. A brief 
hand-to-hand struggle and the Union troops dashed for- 
ward to capture prisoners. Pickett sounded the retreat 
and " high tide " at Gettysburg had been reached. Lee's 
army was defeated and slowly retreated across the 
Potomac without further fighting. 

460. Results of the Battle. The loss on both sides 
was appalling — twenty-three thousand Union men and 



362 TJie War for the Union 

twenty thousand four hundred Confederates. There 
was mourning in thousands of American homes. In 
the North this grief was lightened by the thought of 
victory to the Union arms, but to the South, Gettysburg 
was a double sorrow. This defeat put an end to Con- 
federate invasions. The awful loss suffered by Lee's 
army could not be made up. While the people of the 
North were celebrating the decisive victory at Gettys- 
burg, the news of another triumph at Vicksburg gave 
hope and joy to the supporters of the Union. 

GRANT OPENS THE MISSISSIPPI AND RELIEVES CHATTANOOGA 

461. The Campaign Around Vicksburg (1863). 
After the battle of Corinth, General Grant made prepa- 
rations to complete the opening of the Mississippi, and 
thus break the Confederacy in two. Texas, Arkansas, 
and Louisiana could send food and soldiers across the 
Mississippi to the armies of Johnston, Bragg, and Lee 
only between Vicksburg and Port Hudson. If these two 
strongholds could be captured, this source of supplies 
would be cut off. (See map, page 363.) 

But to capture Vicksburg was a matter of the greatest 
difficulty. It stands upon a perpendicular bluff on the 
east bank of the Mississippi, two hundred feet above the 
water. The fortifications in the rear were thought to 
be impregnable. 

Grant's first attack was directly from the north, but 
ended in failure. He then moved his forces opposite 
Vicksburg in January, and began to cut a canal so that 
Porter's fleet might pass up and down without harm from 
the batteries. But floods prevented the work. When the 
waters went down he resolved to cross the river below 
the city and attack from the east. Commodore Porter 
decided that he could run the batteries at night and carry 
the army over. The boats were prepared for the awful 
trial. Sacks of grain and bales of hay and cotton were 



Grant Opens the Mississippi 



363 



piled high to protect the boilers and engines and conceal 
their fires. 

On an April night, with Porter in his flagship 
"Benton" leading the way, the fleet swung into line. 
Presently a single cannon 
gave the alarm. They 
were discovered. All the 
Confederate batteries 
opened, and the heights 
of Vicksburg were a sheet 
of flame. Houses were set 
on fire to illuminate the 
river. The gunboats has- 
tened on. Now and then 
they made reply by a broad- 
side. After two hours of 
storm they reached safety 
with the loss of only a 
transport or two. 

Once across the river, 
Grant struck quickly. His advmue 

object was to prevent General Joseph E. Johnston from 
reenforcing Pemberton, whose army was protecting 
Vicksburg. He defeated Pemberton's forces at Port 
Gibson and was soon on the road to Jackson, the capital 
of Mississippi, where Johnston was beaten and prevented 
from joining Pemberton. At Champion Hills, between 
Jackson and Vicksburg, Pemberton was again defeated 
(May 1 6th) in the severest field battle of the campaign, 
and chased inside the defenses of Vicksburg. Aided by 
Porter's gunboats, Grant made an assault upon the forti- 
fications, but was repulsed with great loss. (See map 
above.) 

462. The Siege of Vicksburg, Day and night the 
Union forces moved their lines closer. Day and night 




THE CAMPAIGN AROUND VICKSBURG 

The dotted line slioivs Grant's tine of 



3^4 



TJic War for the Union 



for weeks the two armies bombarded each other. Sharp, 
shooters picked off the unlucky soldier whose head 
showed above the works. But sometimes, cramped in 
their trenches, Federal and Confederate held friendly 
conversations or bantered each other for an exchange of 
articles dear to the heart of a soldier. The houses of the 
city were torn or destroyed by shot and shell till the people 
sought safety by digging small caves. Food began to fail, 
and soon mule meat became a luxury. This was war ! 

At length Grant exploded a great mine which blew 
up a portion of the Confederate works. A grand assault 
was planned, but happily for all, " white flags " were seen 
fluttering over the Confederate trenches, July 3d. On the 







FEDERAL AND CONFEDERATE SOLDIERS AT THE SIEGE OF VICKSBURG 

Exchanging tobacco for food and other articles 

morning of the 4th the Confederates marched out and 
grounded their arms in front of the Federal works. Not 
a cheer was given by the brave victors, out of respect for 
the brave defenders. On July 9th Port Hudson surren- 
dered to General Banks, and the " Father of Waters 
flowed unvexed to the sea." 



Grant Opens the Mississippi 



365 



463. Chickamauga, Chattanooga, Lookout Mountain, 
and Missionary Ridge (1863). The battle of Murf reesboro 
had crippled the armies of both Bragg and Rosecrans 
(§ 449). After a long rest, Rosecrans, by skillful maneu- 
vering, forced the Confederates out of Middle Tennessee 
and even from Chattanooga. Later the two armies 
met at Chickamauga Creek 
(September i9-2oth) and fought 
one of the fiercest battles of the 
war. Reenforced by Longstreet 
from Lee's army, Bragg crushed 
a part of the Union forces and 
sent them reeling toward Chat- 
tanooga. But General George H. 
Thomas, who commanded the 
Union left wing, held his ground 
against repeated assaults, and 
§aved the army from greater 
disaster. Ever after the soldiers 
called Thomas the " Rock of 
Chickamauga." 

With supplies almost cut off, 
Rosecrans was besieged in Chat- 
tanooga. The North was 
alarmed. Hooker from the 
Potomac and Grant and Sherman from the Mississippi 
hastened to his relief. Grant took command and soon 
opened a new " cracker line," as the soldiers called it. 
Supplies of food and clothing now reached Chattanooga. 
But Bragg's army seemed securely fixed on the heights 
of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge, which over- 
looked the valley of the Tennessee and the camp of the 
Union forces. 

Early on November 24th Hooker started to storm Look- 
out Mountain. Up and up the army climbed, through 




GEORGE H. THOMAS 
Prom a war-time photograph in 
the possession of t lie Military Order 
of the Loyal Legion of the United 
States, 'Cadet Armory, Boston, 
Massachusetts 



366 The War for the Union 

forests, over ravines and boulders, beating back skir- 
mishers, till they were hidden from the troops in the val- 
ley, and from the Confederates above by fog and mist. 
By four o'clock Hooker had won a complete victory and 
that night Union campfires shone from the slopes of Look- 
out Mountain. " This was the Battle Above the Clouds." 
On the next day, while Sherman was trying to carry 
the north end of Missionary Ridge^ a brilliant charge 
was made by Thomas' troops directly up the face of the 
Ridge. The Confederates were driven from their moun- 
tain stronghold and retreated hastily into Georgia. At 
Dalton, Bragg turned over his command to General John- 
ston. Another decisive campaign had been won for the 
Union. 

464. Burnside Protects East Tennessee. At the 
very beginning of the war President Lincoln had been 
anxious to protect the loyal people of eastern Tennessee, 
thousands of whom suffered for their devotion to the 
Union (§431). While Rosecrans was chasing Bragg out 
of central Tennessee, General Burnside moved from 
Cincinnati into the eastern part and occupied Knoxville. 
His welcome was enthusiastic. After the battle of 
Chickamauga, Bragg sent Longstreet against Burnside. 
The moment Missionary Ridge was captured. Grant 
sent Sherman after Longstreet. But Burnside repulsed 
the assault upon Knoxville and Longstreet retreated 
toward Richmond. 

THE EFFECTS OF THE 'V^'AR ON POLITICS 

465. The North Divides Politically. The rise of the 
war feeling in 1861 left but one party, the war party, in 
each section (§ 430). The struggle of the South was 
too desperate to permit the formation of a strong oppo- 
sition party during the conflict, although some Confed- 
erate leaders were strongly opposed to certain measures 
of President Davis. But in the North, after the first 



TJie Effects of the War on Politics 367 

shock passed away, people began to differ about the 
great questions at stake. There were two parties : one 
composed of Republicans and "war Democrats," who 
supported Lincoln's war policy ; the other composed of 
Democrats who were either opposed to the war or to the 
way in which it was carried on. 

Many Union men strongly opposed Lincoln's early 
action against slavery, and when emancipation came, the 
opponents of his administration grew in numbers and 
activity (§456). Many Democrats charged Lincoln with 
changing the war from one for the L^nion to one for 
freeing the slaves. They stood for "the Constitution 
as it is and the Union as it was." The election in the 
fall of 1862 showed great Democratic gains, especially 
in the border free states, and in New York, where Horatio 
Seymour was elected governor on the Democratic ticket. 

Democrats were not alone in denouncing President 
Lincoln's war policy, for a number of prominent Repub- 
licans were almost equally opposed to it, but for exactly 
opposite reasons. The Democrats opposed emancipa- 
tion; the Radical Republicans demanded it before it 
came. The Democrats criticised the President for 
removing General McClellan ; the Radical Republicans 
demanded McClellan's removal before it was done. 
The Democrats denounced the President for violating 
the Constitution ; the Radical Republicans blamed him 
for not ignoring the Constitution still more. After all, 
however, the Radical Republicans and war Democrats 
generally voted for Lincoln's measures. 

466. Violent Northern Opposition to the War. 
From the beginning many Northern people sympathized 
with the South and wished w^ell to the Confederate 
cause. It was generally very dangerous for them to 
say much, but the bolder ones sometimes made fiery 
speeches in Congress or "on the stump," and denounced 



368 The War for the Union 

the war and the way it was carried on. Such persons 
were called "Copperheads." They formed a sort of 
secret organization in some places to oppose Lincoln's 
war measures. The government threw many persons 
into jail and suppressed a number of newspapers. 

The most serious opposition, however, was against the 
"draft." As the war went on not enough men "volun- 
teered" as soldiers, and the government decided to 
increase the army by drafting ; that is, by deciding by 
lot who should go to war, thus compelling men to go 
whether they wished to or not. At the very time that 
Meade's and Lee's armies were struggling at Gettysburg 
a draft was going on in the North. In New York City 
mobs stopped the draft for several days, burned houses, 
and killed many persons, especially negroes. Troops 
finally suppressed the riots after killing several hun- 
dred of the rioters. The draft then went on. 

467. The Presidential Campaign of 1864. The cam- 
paign of 1864 was one of the most critical in the life of 
the nation. The defeat of Lincoln would have meant 
the success of secession. Nevertheless the Radical Re- 
publicans went so far as to hold a convention of their 
own and nominate General Fremont for the Presidency, 
but he finally refused to run. 

The National Union party, as Lincoln's supporters 
now called themselves, met at Baltimore, renominated 
Abraham Lincoln, and named a war Democrat, Andrew 
Johnson of Tennessee, for Vice-President. The platform 
declared in favor of the preservation of the Union and 
the complete destruction of slavery by amending the 
Constitution. 

The Democrats met at Chicago and declared that the 
four years of war for the Union had been a failure 
and that peace ought to be made. General George B. 
McClellan was nominated for President, but although he 



The Final Campaigns 



369 



accepted the nomination he declared : " I could not look 
in the faces of my gallant comrades, who have survived 
so many bloody battles, and tell them their labors had 
been in vain, and that we had abandoned the Union." 

The war had been much longer and costlier than any 
one dreamed it would be. . Even some Republicans, like 
Horace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune, were 
in favor of peace. But the 
Chicago convention had 
hardly adjourned before its 
declaration concerning the 
failure of the war was 
sharply contradicted by the 
news of events which pointed 
to the early fall of the Con- 
federacy. Then, too, people 
became convinced that Jef- 
ferson Davis would demand 
the breaking up of the Union 
as the one condition of peace. 
The election gave Lincoln 
over four hundred thousand 

more votes than McClellan, ^^^^ athotograph taken in rS66byF. 

one of the largest majorities Gutekunst, phUadeipina 

ever received by a President. The result showed that 
the people, in the spirit of Lincoln's Gettysburg address, 
had highly resolved "that this nation under God shall 
have a new birth of freedom ; and that government of 
the people, by the people, and for the people shall not 
perish from the earth." 

THE FINAL CAMPAIGNS 

468. Grant Becomes Lieutenant-General (1864). 

President Lincoln found it very difficult to select able 
generals whom both army and people trusted. The 
course of events, however, had brought into great 

25 




ULYSSES S. GRANT 



3/0 TJie War for the Union 

prominence the hero of Donelson and Vicksburg-, and 
after his success around Chattanooga the question of the 
man best able to control all the Union forces was settled. 

Grant was given the rank of Lieutenant-General, a 
position previously held only by Washington and Scott. 
He personally directed the campaign against Lee, but 
General Meade retained the immediate command of the 
Army of the Potomac. Sherman was given command 
over the armies of the West. 

469. The Wilderness, Spottsylvania, and Cold Har- 
bor (1864). With his army of one hundred and twenty 
thousand veterans, Grant crossed the Rapidan and met 
Lee's army of over sixty thousand men in the Wilder- 
ness, a region of tangled woods and thickets. Here for 
two days (May 5th and 6th) detachments of the two 
armies swayed back and forth in the struggle for vic- 
tory, but without decisive results. 

To get nearer Richmond, Grant made a flank march 
to Spottsylvania Court House. Here Lee again faced 
him, and several days of hard fighting took place. Per- 
haps the fiercest encounter of the war occurred at what 
was called the " bloody angle." During these battles 
Grant sent his famous dispatch to Halleck: "I propose 
to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer." 

Having failed to break through Lee's intrenchments, 
Grant once more made a flanking movement and reached 
Cold Harbor, where he again assaulted the Confederate 
works. The attempt failed and the Union loss made the 
North shudder. 

Again the army moved, crossed the James, and began 
the siege of Petersburg. In less than two months Grant 
had lost about fifty thousand men. Lee, fighting over 
familiar ground and mainly behind intrenchments, had 
lost a smaller number. Yet his loss was the more disas- 
trous, because the fighting population of the Confederacy 



T]ic Final Campaigns 371 

was almost used up. Old men and boys were now enter- 
ing her army. 

470. Early's Raids. To loosen Grant's grip on Rich- 
mond, Lee sent General Early with nearly twenty thou- 
sand veterans down the Shenandoah Valley straight 
against Washington. He brushed aside the Union forces 
and was soon knocking at the outer fortifications of the 
capital. Washington was again in terror, but the timely 
arrival of reenforcements from Grant probably saved 
the city. Early beat a hasty retreat up the valley, car- 
rying with him large supplies for Lee's army. Encour- 
aged by this success the Confederates made another raid 
across the Pennsylvania line and burned the town of 
Chambersburg. 

471. Sheridan's Raid and Ride. Grant had placed 
General Philip H. Sheridan in command of the cavalry 
of the Army of the Potomac. He now sent him to the 
Shenandoah to attack Early and destroy the supplies in 
this region, so that the Confederates could not again 
secure supplies from the valley. The first collision took 
place near Winchester (September 19th). The battle 
was long and hard, but Sheridan won, and after a second 
fight drove Early through the gaps of the Blue Ridge. 

Sheridan now turned to the awful work of devastat- 
ing the beautiful valley. Houses, barns, mills, and grain 
were burned, and stock of all kinds was driven away. 
Little was left for the support of the inhabitants, to say 
nothing of Lee's army. 

But Early suddenly returned, routed the Union forces 
at Cedar Creek, and sent a large part of them helter- 
skelter toward Winchester, where Sheridan was staying 
overnight on his return from Washington. As Sheri- 
dan rode along, the roar of distant cannon greeted him 
and retreating soldiers told the story of the rout. He 
dashed toward the scene of action, calling on his men 



372 



The War for the Union 




SHERIDAN'S RIDE AT CEDAR CREEK 

Rallying' his retreating men, he turned 

defeat into a victory 



to rally and face the Confederates. They answered 
with cheers. Some of the troops had already rallied and, 

aided by troops holding 
their position, soon sent 
Early's men flying up 
the valley. There was 
no more fighting in the 
Shenandoah, for there was 
nothing left to fight for, 
472. The Campaign 
Against Atlanta (1864). 
Atlanta stood next to 
Richmond in importance 
to the Confederacy. It 
was not only an impor- 
tant railroad center, but its foundries and factories were 
among the best in the South for war supplies. The 
capture of Atlanta was Sherman's task. 

Just as Grant was moving into the Wilderness, Sher- 
man put his army in motion against Johnston, who was 
strongly intrenched at Dalton, Georgia. By repeated 
flanking movements and almost constant fighting. Sher- 
man, within less than two months, compelled the Con- 
federates to retreat from Dalton, Resaca, Dallas, and 
Kennesaw Mountain. Johnston, whose forces were 
much smaller than Sherman's, was cautious and refused 
to risk the fate of Atlanta on a pitched battle. Presi- 
dent Davis, therefore, dismissed him and put Hood in 
his place. 

Four bloody battles followed in rapid succession. But 
Hood's army was being hammered to pieces and, to escape 
Pemberton's fate, he blew up the powder magazines and 
evacuated Atlanta (September 2d). Once more "the gate 
city of the south " belonged to the Union, and another 
important source of supply for Lee's army was gone. 



The Final Campaigns 



373 



473. Farragut Goes Into Mobile Bay (1864). Mobile 
Bay was the favorite resort for blockade runners (§ 439). 
From this point European supplies reached by railroad or 
river the main centers of the Confederacy. While Grant 
was campaigning against Lee, and Sherman battering 
Hood, Admiral Farragut planned to capture Mobile with 
his fleet. The entrance to the bay was guarded by two 
powerful forts, Gaines and Morgan, a monster iron ram, 
the "Tennessee," and a fleet of gunboats. 

With his vessels lashed together, two and two, and 
with the ironclads between his wooden ships and the 
stronger fort, Farragut gave the signal for the Union 
fleet to move in between the two forts. Lashing himself 
to the rigging he directed the battle amid a storm of 
shot and shell. It was terrific but short, for the Union 
vessels were soon past the 
forts. Farragut lost one 
vessel and the Confederates 
their whole fleet. The forts 
shortly surrendered and 
another artery of the Con- 
federacy had been cut. 

474. End of the Confed- 
erate Navy. The year 1864 
witnessed the disappearance 
of most of the Confederate 
cruisers. The English gov- 
ernment, though repeatedly 
warned by Minister Adams, 




DAVID GLASCOE FARRAGUT 



permitted Confederate ves- 

^ . -i , J T • From an engraving made by the Bureau 

SelS to be constructed m of Engraving and Printing, IVaslnng- 

T~, • . - 1 1 1 fci \ rt\i ^on, D. C, after a photograph by Rock- 

BritlSh docks (§437). The wood. New York 

first of these, the " Florida," built at Liverpool, was 
captured early in the war. But the most celebrated and 
destructive was the "Alabama," also built at Liverpool. 



374 



The War for the Union 



In all she destroyed between sixty and seventy merehant 
vessels. She was the terror of the seas, and the North 
was most anxious for her eapture. At last the "Ala- 
bama" was sent to the bottom by the Union man-of-war, 
" Kearsarge," in a great naval duel off Cherbourg, 
France (June, 1864). Another cruiser, the "Shenan- 
doah," obtained in England, sailed into the Pacific and 
destroj'ed undisturbed till the war ended. 

After the destruction of the ram "Tennessee," tl^e 
most dangerous Confederate war vessel remaining Vas 
the ironclad ram "Albemarle." Twice had she (dam- 
aged the Union fleet, and Lieutenant Cushing resc/lved 
to end her career. On a dark night in Octobenr he 
approached the ram off Plymouth, North Carolina, in 

a small boat, and exploded 
a torpedo beneath her. 
Cushing escaped capture 
by jumping into the river, 
and finally reached the 
Union fleet. 

475. Sherman's March 
to the Sea (1864). Sher- 
man was not satisfied with 
the capture of Atlanta, but 
^proposed to break in two 
what remained of the Con- 
federacy by marching his 
army directly to Savannah. 
But Hood suddenly turned 
and moved toward Ten- 
nessee, intending to crush 
Thomas, who had been sent 
to Nashville, and thus to 
cut off Sherman's retreat northward. Sherman, however, 
had full faith in the ability of Thomas and, instead of 




WILLIAM TECUMSEH SHERMAN 
From a war-time photograph in the pos- 
session of the Military Order of the Loval 
Leg- ion of the United States, Cadet 
Armory, Boston, Massachusetts 



The Final Campaigns 



375 



retreating-, lie cut all communications with the North 
(November 12th) and started for the sea, two hundred 
miles away. 

• With sixty thousand veterans he swept a belt sixty 
miles broad. Railroads were destroyed by wrecking 
engines, burning cars, and by twisting the rails out of 




SHERMAN'S RAIDERS AT WORK 

shape while heated. Sherman's soldiers swept the 
region bare of food for both man and beast. Houses, 
barns, and mills were left in ashes, and their owners 
reduced to poverty. But to the negroes Sherman seemed 
a deliverer. They gathered to witness the strange scene, 
and many followed in the rear of the army. 

Week after week went by and no word came back to 
tell the anxious North of the fate of Sherman and his 
men. They were lost to those at home. Not until 
December did the North hear that Sherman's men had 
captured Savannah. 

476. The Battle of Franklin ; Thomas Overwhelms 
Hood at Nashville (1864). While Sherman was moving 
southward, the bold but reckless Hood was trying to 
demolish the "Rock of Chickamauga" and recover Ten- 
nessee. At Franklin he assaulted Schofield's columns, 
which were retreating to join Thomas, but failed to 



376 



TJie War for the Union 



defeat them. The North became alarmed at Thomas' 
unavoidable delay in attacking Hood. But after all was 
ready, he took the aggressive and overwhelmed Hood's 
army at Nashville, capturing thousands of prisoners 
and following the \yn)v\y armed and poorly clad rem- 
nants into Alabama. Hood resigned and Johnston was 
restored to the command of his old army. 

477. Sherman Marches to Goldsboro and Hears 
News of Peace (1865). Early in February Sherman 

started on his march of over four 
hundred miles through the Caro- 
linas. Columbia, South Carolina's 
capital, w^as reached and burned. ' 
Charleston soon fell. Fort Sum- 
ter had already been knocked to 
pieces by General Gillmore and 
fy Admiral Dahlgren, and Fort Wag- 
ner had been taken after one dis- 
'"l^ astrous assault had failed (1863). 
Sherman pushed on and met 
his old antagonist at Bentonville, 
North Carolina. But Johnston's 
forces were too few to offer suc- 
josEPH EGGLESTON JOHNSTON ecssful rcsistauce, and the Union 

From a photograph taken tii i/iyo. -i /-a i i i 1-1 

The negative is nozv in thepos- army CUterCd (jOldSbOrO, WhlCh 
session of George S.Cook of Rich- , , ., , . . , 

mond, Virginia. A painting had railroad conncctious With 

from it b\< Browne is nozv in the . ^ , _ 

Westmoreland Club, Richmond Richmond and the COast. LcC 

was now cut off, and could not escape to the southward. 
A month later, while marching to attack Johnston, news 
came to Sherman that Lee and his army had surrendered. 

478. The Capture of Richmond ; The Surrender of 
Lee and Johnston (1865), After the defeat of Early, 
Sheridan severed Lee's connections with Lynchburg 

•There has been much dispute as to whether the fire was accidental 
or not. 




The Final Campaigns 377 

and the mountains to the west by destroying the rail- 
road and canal nearly to Richmond. He then joined 
forces with Grant, who was still besieging Petersburg 
and extending his lines to the southward of Richmond 
to prevent Lee's escape to Johnston. Finally Sheridan, 
on April i.st, seized a position at Five Forks which com- 
pletely cut off the Confederate supplies. 

On the night of April 2d Lee withdrew from Peters- 
burg and Richmond. The officers of the Confederate 
and state governments gathered up their records and 
hastily fled southward under cover of the night. Lin- 
coln came to rejoice with Grant and his men over their 
victory. The capital of the Confederacy was on fire and 
thieves were pillaging shops and homes when the Union 
troops entered to hoist the old flag, put out the fires, and 
restore order. 

But Lee's army was of more importance than Rich- 
mond. Day and night the pursuit was kept up, and 
on the morning of April 9th Sheridan's cavalry were 
directly across the line of march of Lee's struggling and 
starving troops. The brave Confederate commander 
soon saw that resistance was in vain, and, unwilling to 
submit his men to useless hardship, he gave up the fight. 

Jn the village of Appomattox Grant and Lee arranged 
the terms of surrender. The Confederates were simply 
to lay down their arms, go to their homes, and obey 
the laws. They even kept swords, baggage, and horses. 
Never before, in civil war, were terms so generous 
granted by victor to vanquished, and never were terms 
more faithfully observed. Grant immediately ordered 
that Lee's hungry army be fed, and forbade the firing of 
salutes in celebration of the surrender, for foes were now 
to be friends. 

Johnston surrendered to Sherman April 26th, at 
Durham, North Carolina. But President Davis still held 



378 



The War for tlic Union 



out and was aiming to reach Kirby Smith's army in 
Texas, when he was captured in southern Georgia, near 
Irwinville, and imprisoned in Fortress Monroe. He was 

.. .:t^g^. .;..;..: r.;.^:,.,., finally re- 



■^r^ 



«^»-|^^^'^^>/j. 




leased on 
bail in 1867, 
and lived for 
the remain- 
der of his 
days in his 
Mississippi 
home. Smith 
surrendered 
to General 
Canby May 
26th, and 
armed re- 

LEE AFTER THE SURRENDER 

With bared heads and sober faces his troops bade a silent SlStanCC WaS 
farewell to their beloved leader j. p-nrl 

479. The Assassination of President Lincoln. Thou- 
sands of lives and millions of money had been given 
for the Union, but one great sacrifice remained. The 
saddest event of the war was the assassination of Abra- 
ham Lincoln. 

John Wilkes Booth, an actor, plotted with other con- 
spirators to murder the President, General Grant, and 
other high officers. On the evening of April 14th 
Lincoln went to Ford's Theater. While the President 
was sitting in his box Booth fired the fatal shot. Lin- 
coln died the next morning. Booth was pursued ahd 
shot while hiding in Virginia, and the other conspira- 
tors were tried and hanged or imprisoned for life. 
Every 103'al home was filled with sorrow. It seemed 
that a father had fallen. Southern loaders, too, de- 
nounced the as.sassination. The South had lost her best 



Immediate Results of the War 379 

friend, for Lincoln was a man "with malice toward 
none, with charity for all." 

480. The Grand Review (1865). The Confederacy 
was no more and the Union was saved. It Avas resolved 
to bring as many as possible of the million Union 
soldiers through Washington for a last grand review. 
For two days the veterans paraded through the avenues 
of the capital, reviewed by their officers, by the new 
President, the members of Congress, and by hundreds 
of distinguished people who had come to witness the 
grand spectacle. The last roll was called, the last 
banner furled, and the war-scarred soldiers dispersed 
to receive the welcome of waiting ones at home. But 
in many thousands of homes. North and South, were 
broken hearts never to be gladdened by the return of 
father, son, or brother. In a few days the soldier was 
once more a private citizen, and the stirring scenes 
through which he had passed were soon to become 
memories which should live again only in the fireside 
tale of the veteran or on the page of the historian. 

IMMEDIATE RESULTS OF THE WAR 

481. The Loss of Life ; Sanitary and Christian Com- 
missions. One of the most deplorable results of the 
war was the sacrifice of human life. At least half a mil- 
lion men perished. The great majority of deaths, more 
than two to one, were due to disease and hardship. The 
sudden outbreak of the war found both sections unpre- 
pared to care properly for their soldiers. The spread of 
disease due to new ways of sleeping and eating, and to 
a change of climate, together vrith the ravages of battle, 
overtaxed the relief departments of the two govern- 
ments. Men and women labored to send comfortable 
clothing and nourishing food to the hospitals, and linen 
and woolen bandages to bind up wounds. 

In the North the most systematic efforts were made 



38o 



The War for the Union 




-««•«■ 



SANITARY COMMISSION HEADQUARTERS 

From a war-time photograph 



by the Sanitary and Christian commissions. The San- 
itary Commission was an organization of kind-hearted 
people whose object was to aid the government in car- 
ing for the soldiers. By means of large sums of money 
obtained from rich people, and by "fairs" held in northern 
cities, the Commis^on provided physicians, medicines, 
and nurses for the sick and wounded. Its hospitals, cars, 

and tents followed the 
armies on the march. 
A battle was- hardly be- 
gun before attendants 
with ambulances and 
-^-""^fr-— ' stretchers were carrying 
' \l-S^^F^the wounded to the rear. 



The Christian Com- 
mission was organized 
to care for the religious 
and moral life of the army. Its chaplains held religious 
meetings and furnished the soldier with books and 
magazines. In addition it, too, furnished food, clothing, 
and nurses for the hospitals. 

482. Conditions in the Confederacy. The condition 
of the Confederate soldier was very different. Lee's 
veterans often marched and fought without good shoes, 
proper clothing, or sufficient food. No great Sanitary 
and Christian commissions cared for the sick and 
wounded Confederates. Yet the people did what they 
could to relieve the boys in gray. Women met and 
sewed and worked day and night to prepare clothing 
and food for their absent ones in the field, and prayed 
and hoped for success as did the women of the North. 

The destruction of life told more quickly on the 
South than on the North. To begin with, the Confed- 
erate States had only about two million eight hundred 
thousand white men of all ages, while the North had 



Immediate Results of the War 381 

over a million soldiers in the field at one time. In 
April, 1862, the Confederate government was compelled 
to draft men into the army, and in the last year of the 
conflict old men and boys were forced to the front. 
The great majority of able-bodied men could serve as 
soldiers because the slaves on the plantations raised 
supplies for the army and cared for the families. In the 
army, also, the negro was servant, cook, teamster, or 
laborer on the fortifications. When there were no more 
men to fill the gaps in the Southern ranks, it was 
proposed to arm even the negroes to fight for the Con- 
federacy. It was not done, however, and when Lee 
started for Appomattox he had only about forty thou- 
sand men, and when the day of surrender came, less 
than twenty-nine thousand were paroled by Grant. 

The loss to the South was the more severe because 
her educated class had suffered most. How badly she 
needed them to help bring back order and prosperity 
and find her old place in the Union again ! ' 

While the North lost as many men, the loss was not 
felt so much, for the North still had thousands able to 
bear arms, and the resources on which armies depend had 
really increased during the war. In the latter part of 
the struggle the North enlisted large numbers of negro 
troops. The negroes were mainly used to garrison forts, 
but certain negro regiments did excellent fighting. 

483. The Destruction of Property. The total amount 
of property destroyed by the war, the injury to business, 
and the breaking up of ordinary occupations furnish a 
grand total of harm that can never be correctly estimated. 
The greatest injury again fell upon the states of the Con- 
federacy. The border slave states suffered little in com- 
parison, while Lee and Early in southern Pennsylvania 
and Morgan's raiders in southern Indiana and Ohio gave 
the free states their only taste of real war. 



382- 



The War for tJic Union 



«\^ 



»^ 






But in the Confederate States for four years great 
armies swept to and fro like destructive tornadoes. 
Fields of grain were scarcely ripe before trodden under 
foot or eaten by hungry soldiers and their horses. If 
food, clothing, or property could not be taken, they 
were destroyed to prevent their falling into the hands 
of the enemy. Mills, factories, foundries, railroads, 
bridges, and even cities were destroyed. 

From the very beginning the South lacked in instru- 
ments of warfare and in the means of making them (§432). 
Churches and households gave up their brass to be made 
into cannon. " Shot " guns, " flint locks," and even hand- 
made swords were called into use. As the war went 
on and the blockade grew stricter, 
luxuries and even necessities grew 
scarce. Cotton, tobacco, and rice, on 
which the South so much depended, 
fell off in both value and amount. 
Gold and silver became scarce and 
were hidden away. The Confederate 
government issued paper money, but 
it decreased in value so that, in the 
last year of the war, it was almost 
worthless. 

484. The Planter and Plantation 
Ruined. No person lost more in the 
Civil War than the Southern planter. 
He rode away to battle full of hope 
and enthusiasm ; he returned in gloom. His cause had 
been lost. His field laborers and house servants had 
been set free. This alone cost the slaveholders two 
billion dollars, counting each slave worth five hundred 
dollars. He was not accustomed to toil in the field, nor 
his wife and daughters to labor in the household. His 
plantation had gone to ruin. If the buildings and fences 






.*'•• fi \ 
25 ^.^25 

TWENTY FIVE CEK 



EXAMPLES OF CONFEDER- 
ATE PAPER MONEY 




Immediate Results of the War 



383 












'^ ^ ' \ s I I » ' ■< »/ 4 "^ ~^ ^ ' '' From a photograph 

A SOUTHERN PLANTER'S DESERTED HOME 

had escaped destruction, they were out of repair. His 
cows and sheep and droves of hogs had been used to 
feed the army. Horses and mules were worn out or 
had been killed in battle. The blockade had lowered 
the price of all he had to sell abroad, and raised the 
price of all he had been accustomed to buy. The 
money he received as a soldier was now worthless. He 
was once a man of position and power. But the very 
slave who had saved his soldier's pay might now pur- 
chase a part of the old plantation. 

485. War Times in the North. The people of the 
North hardly knew what war meant, as compared with 
the people of the South. True, there were recruiting 
camps in nearly every neighborhood. The mothers and 
sisters wept as the men marched away with colors flying 
and drums beating. There were mass meetings and much 
war talk. After great battles, excited groups gathered 
to hear the news and read the list of dead and wounded. 
Now and then a hero was brought home to be buried with 
the honors of war. Wounded and crippled soldiers soon 
appeared in large numbers to remind the people of the 
awful contest. Heavier taxes and the drafting of men to 
serve as soldiers also brought the war nearer home. 

But the North escaped the harm of marching armies. 



^^4 



TJtc War for tlic Union 




Wages constantly rose in all occupations. The great 
need of the government for food, clothing, and war 

material encouraged all business. 
The northern farmer received 
higher and higher prices for every- 
thing he raised, and the manu- 
facturer, protected by a high 
tariff, enjoyed great prosperity. 
486. A New National Bank- 
ing System (1863), Since the 
days of Andrew Jackson, state 
banks had controlled the bank- 
ing business of the country, but 
the paper money which they 
issued was of uncertain value. 
During the war, however, Con- 
gress, at the suggestion of Secre- 
tary Chase (§428), passed a law 
that the bonds by which the nation borrowed money 
should become the basis of a new system of national 
banks. State banks were forced to become national 
banks by a heavy tax on their paper money. Many new 
banking companies were also formed, but all companies 
were compelled to deposit in the national Treasury 
government bonds equal to at least a third of their capital. 
Each bank was then entitled to issue paper money to the 
extent of ninety per cent of the face value of the bonds 
deposited. Thus, banks as well as bonds rested on faith 
in the success of the war for the Union. 

487. The Money Cost of the War. The business 
prosperity and sound banking system made it easier for 
the North to pay the heavy taxes demanded by the war. 
Congress used its taxing power more than ever before, 
by raising the tariff, levying taxes upon land, on all 
incomes over eight hundred dollars, and by establishing 



SALMON P. CHASE 

From an enf^raviiig in the posses- 
sion of the ADwrican Bank Note 
Company 



Immediate Results of the War 385 

an internal revenue system. Thousands of persons knew 
for the first time that they were paying taxes directly into 
the national Treasury. The internal revenue tax fell 
upon almost every occupation in life as well as upon about 
everything that a man ate, drank, or wore. In 1865 this 
tax alone raised about three hundred million dollars. 

But the expenses of the war even in 1862 were almost 
two million dollars per day, and the government was 
compelled to issue two kinds of promises to pay, bonds 
and paper money. The bonds were pledges, generally 
at six or seven per cent interest, to pay the holder a 
certain sum at the end of twenty, thirty, or forty years. 
By this means more than a billion dollars were borrowed. 

But this vast sum was not nearly enough, and Congress 
authorized the issuing of " paper money." This, too, was 
merely a "promise to pay," but was used instead of coin. 

There were three kinds of paper currency: (/) 
Interest-bearing notes amounting to over three hundred 
and seventy-five million dollars. (2) Noninterest-bearing 
notes, or " greenbacks," reaching nearly four hundred and 
fifty million dollars. This kind of paper money was good 
for all payments except for tariff duties and interest on 
the national debt, (j) " Fractional currency," to serve 
as " small change," for the people had stored even their 
small pieces of gold and silver. 

In spite of the great sums raised by taxation the 
national debt in 1865 reached the enormous amount of 
two billion eight hundred million dollars. But to get 
the total money cost of the war we must add to this 
not only taxes raised by the nation, and the large sums 
expended for interest on the debt, for pensions, and for 
damage to property, but also the vast amounts paid out 
by states, cities, towns, and even individuals. This will 
give a grand total, for saving the Union, perhaps three 
times as large as the national debt in 1865. 

36 



€f)e ^erioti of ^on^efoiiliation anli <iErpanjefion 

RECONSTRUCTION OF THE SECEDED STATED: 

LINCOLN AND JOHNSON'S IDEAS OF RECONSTRUCTION 

488. The Political Position of the Seceded States. 

One of the greatest results of the war was to make good 
the doctrine of Webster and Jackson, as expressed in 
the words of Lincoln's first inaugural, that " The union 
of these states is perpetual. No state, upon its own 
mere motion, can lawfully get out of the Union." Never 
again will men in this country believe that a state can 
legally withdraw from the Union. 

But although Lincoln and the North had held this 
idea, the seceded states had believed themselves out of 
the Union. What should be done with them now that 
peace was declared? Were individuals, especially the 
leaders, to be punished or pardoned? If the states had 
no right to secede, then they were still in the Union, 
and were not conquered territories, but states with 
rights under the very Constitution against which they 
had been fighting. 

The bringing of the seceded states again under the 
workings of the Constitution is called "reconstruction." 

489. The Beginnings of Reconstruction. No sooner 
had the Union armies occupied large portions of the 
Confederate States than Lincoln took steps to bring 
those states again into working connection with the 
national government. In December, 1863, he sent forth 
a " Proclamation of Amnesty " by which he pledged him- 
self to pardon all persons, with a few exceptions, whe 
would take an oath " to support, protect, and defend the 
Constitution of the United States," and all Acts of 

(386) 









I^K 






/«-, 
•■ 



^ 













Lmcoln and Johisons Ideas of Reconstriiction 387 



Congress and the Proclamation of Emancipation. He 
promised that when the voters in any state, taking this 
oath, were not less than one-tenth of the number who 
voted in the Presidential election of i860, they might set 
up a state government and elect members of Congress. 

But when the people of Tennessee, Louisiana, and 
Arkansas accepted these terms, Congress refused to 
receive their members and to 
count their electoral vote. On 
July 4, 1864, Congress sent a 
different plan of reconstruc- 
tion to the President, to which, 
however, he did not agree. 
When the subject came up 
again, Lincoln was dead and 
the war was over. 

490. President Johnson 
and His Policy. Andrew 
Johnson became President on 
the death of Lincoln (§ 467). 
He had been a Senator from 
Tennessee, and a war Demo- 
crat, but many believed that 
he would be more severe with 
the South than Lincoln had 
been. His amnesty proclamation made a larger number 
of exceptions, but in other points resembled Lincoln's 
proclamation. 

Johnson pushed forward the work of reconstruction 
while Congress was not in session. The blockade was 
raised and Southern ports were once more open to the 
world's commerce. The tariff was again collected, mail 
carried, and cases were tried by the courts in the name 
of the United States. Temporary governors were also 
appointed by the President. 




ANDREW JOHNSON 

From a photograph taken in rSbs, by 
A. Gardner, Washington, D. C, and 
published by Philip J. SolomonSy Wash- 
ington^ D. C. 



388 Reconsirticiion of tJic Seceded States 

Encouraged by the governors, the qualified voters in 
the South held constitutional conventions, set up state 
governments, and declared secession illegal. They also 
agreed that no Confederate debts should ever be paid, 
and that they would never reestablish slavery. 

491. The Thirteenth Amendment (1865). Slavery 
was now being dug up by the very roots. The Union 
states of Maryland, West Virginia, and Missouri had 
already begun the work of giving freedom to their 
slaves (§§ 455, 456). 

Soon, amid exciting scenes, Congress passed the Thir- 
teenth Amendment, which, using words taken from the 
Ordinance of 1787, finished the work begun by the Proc- 
lamation of Emancipation. A sufficient number of states 
having accepted the amendment, it was proclaimed a part 
of the Constitution, December 18, 1865. (Constitution, 
Articles V. and XIII.) 

492. Congress and President Disagree. The situa- 
tion in the South was a strange one. Four million slaves 
were now free. They were without education and had 
had little or no experience in caring for themselves. 
The Southern people naturally feared that the negroes, 
now without control, would become idle and dangerous. 

Several Southern legislatures, therefore, passed very 
severe laws to control the negroes. If they refused to 
work at customary wages, they could be declared vagrants 
— "tramps" — and fined. If fines could not be paid, the 
judge could sentence the offenders to work for some 
white man. Children could be "bound out" to labor till 
a certain age was reached. 

Congress thought this was the result of Johnson's 
hasty reconstruction and of a determination on the part 
of the former slaveholders to keep control of the negro. 
Congress was angry and still refused to seat Southern 
members. 



1 Amendments. Article XV. 



The Congressional Plan of Reconstruction 389 




493. Congress Tries to Protect the Negro. As 

early as 1865 the Freedman's Bureau had been estab- 
lished by Congress to assist the 
negro in getting a start in his 
new life. The bureau consisted 
of army officers who were to pro- 
tect the negro and to sell him 
government lands cheaply. A 
year later the Civil Rights Bill 
made him a citizen of the United 
States, with the privilege of 
appealing to the national courts 
to protect him. This measure 
had to be passed over the Presi- 
dent's veto. 

In June, 1866, the Fourteenth 
Amendment was enacted, and its ^ thaddeus stevens 

' Frotn a photograph taken by 

acceptance was made the condi- ^^^j;^^ J:;^„^^:^^;^;,^ J;^ 
tion upon which Congress would ^Afef-ZTlfiefty^i^: p^nn%'i^^ 
admit members from the seceded ^'^"^'^ 

states. This amendment aimed to secure to the negro 
both his civil rights and the right to vote. It also 
excluded from office the leading Confederate officers 
and made impossible the payment of any part of the Con- 
federate debt. (Constitution, Article XIV.) Tennessee 
accepted this amendment and thus escaped the more 
rigid acts of Congress. 

THE CONGRESSIONAL PLAN OF RECONSTRUCTION 

494. Congress Strikes at the President; Congres- 
sional Reconstruction (1866). Congress and President 
Johnson were now open enemies. Neither could do good 
in the other's sight. In public speeches in various cities 
the President denounced Congress and its plan of dealing 
with the seceded states. Thaddeus vStevens was the lead- 
ing opponent in Congress of President Johnson's policy. 



390 Reconstruction of the Seceded States 

Public opinion in the North was divided, but the 
congressional election in 1866 gave the Republicans 
more than a two-thirds majority in Congress. With 
this majority they tied the hands of President Johnson 
by passing the Tenure of Office Act, which forbade him 
to dismiss any man from office without the consent of 
the Senate, and by giving General Grant control over 
the army, to prevent the President from withdrawing 
the soldiers from the South. 

With the exception of Tennessee, the late Confeder- 
ate States were made into five military districts, with a 
general over each to superintend the work of recon- 
struction. In each state the voters who had taken the 
oath were to elect delegates to frame a constitution 
which should give the right to vote to all male persons 
who were citizens under the Fourteenth Amendment. 
If both the state and Congress approved this constitution, 
the state was to be restored to its place in the Union. 

495. President Johnson Impeached (1867). The 
quarrel between Congress and the President reached a 
crisis when the latter demanded that Secretary of War 
Stanton give up his office. Congress feared that Johnson 
was bent on putting men in office who would not carry 
out its plan of reconstruction, so the House of Repre- 
sentatives brought charges against him for " high crimes 
and misdemeanors." * (Constitution, Article II., §4.) 

The case was tried before the Senate, acting as a 
jury, with the Chief Justice as presiding officer. For 
nearly two months the great trial continued. After all 
the testimony had been taken, and the noted lawyers 
had spoken for and against the President, thirty-five 
Senators voted "guilty" and nineteen "not guilty." 
(Constitution, Article I., § 3, ll" G-y) Thus the first 
attempt to turn a President of the United States out of 
office by impeachment failed by only one vote. 

'Constitution, Article I., Sec. 2, U 5. 



The Congressional Plan of Reconstruction 391 

496. Grant and Colfax Elected (1868). The ques- 
tion of reconstruction and the quarrel between the Presi- 
dent and Congress made the campaign of 1 868 exciting. 
The issues between the two parties had grown mostly 
out of the war. 

The Republicans favored paying United States bonds 
in coin, supported the plan of reconstruction offered by 
Congress, and nominated General Grant and Schuyler 
Colfax. 

The Democrats called for the complete pardon of all 
engaged in the rebellion, and for the taxation of govern- 
ment bonds ; opposed land grants to railroads, and nomi- 
nated Horatio Seymour of New York and Francis P. 
Blair of Missouri. 

The Republicans won by two hundred and fourteen 
electoral votes to eighty. Three of the seceded states, 
however, had not voted because they were not yet recon- 
structed. 

497. The Carpetbaggers (1868-1870). By June, 1868, 
the Carolinas, Arkansas, Alabama, Florida, and Loui- 
siana were back in the Union. But the four remaining 
seceded states hesitated. 

Many of the Southern states fell into the hands of the 
new negro voters, led by dishonest Northern politicians 
called " Carpetbaggers." This name was given in con- 
tempt because it was said they carried all their property 
in carpetbags. They were aided by a few Southern 
white men called "Scalawags." The Carpetbaggers 
had hastened south to become rich by persuading the 
negroes to elect them to office. They easily made their 
ignorant followers believe that the Southern white men 
wished to put them back into slavery, and that their 
only hope was to vote for the Republicans. 

498. Negro Rule in the South. In most of the 
reconstructed states a majority of the members of the 



392 Reconstruction of the Seceded States 

legislature were, at one time, negroes. They were a 
strange body of men to make laws for states so injured 
by war. Some were intelligent because they had been 
trusted servants of their masters, while others were 
ignorant, having spent their lives toiling in cotton and 
rice fields. Some were well dressed, but many wore 
second-hand clothes, "glossy and threadbare." A few 
were clad in the coarse dress of field hands. All were 
ignorant of public business. 

How changed the scene to the old planters who, in the 
same halls, had heard the voices of Hayne and Calhoun, 
or of Toombs and Stephens! Now if a white member 
rose to speak, he must address a former slave sitting in 
the Speaker's chair. If he offered a resolution, he must 
hear it read to the legislature by the negro clerk. If he 
served on an important committee, its chairman and a 
majority of its members were negroes. 

While the legislature was debating a bill to raise or 
to spend money, the greatest excitement would occur. 
Though the Speaker pounded his desk to keep order, 
many persons would be on their feet trying to speak at 
the same time. The noise of loud talking, and even 
laughing, went right on. Some members leaned back 
with their feet on the desks, smoking cigars or eating 
peanuts, while those who were to profit by the bill were 
busy trying to buy votes for it. 

499. Results of Carpetbag and Negro Rule. No 
such extravagance and corruption had ever been seen in 
the Southern states. Millions were wasted and millions 
were stolen. The Carpetbaggers grew rich, but the 
people had to pay the bills. 

The results were bad in the extreme : (/) The negro 
proved himself unfit as yet to govern, and made it 
harder for some to believe that he would ever learn so 
difficult a lesson. {2) This taste of public life made 



The Co7igressional Plan of Reconstruction 393 

many negroes unwilling to go back to common occupa- 
tions, (j) The states burdened by debt were unable 
to encourage industry and free schools, the two things 
the South most needed. (^) Worst of all was the race 
hatred aroused. The Southern white people had suffered 
most because they owned most of the property. Stung 
by the overbearing conduct of the negro and his leaders, 
they therefore resolved to keep the black man from 
controlling southern affairs. 

500. Kuklux Klan (1868-1871). This result was 
accomplished by a secret society, the Kuklux Klan or 
Invisible Empire, which arose in Tennessee and spread 
over the South. Its strange symbols, hideous dress, and 
midnight visits of ghostly horsemen were for the pur- 
pose of preventing negro domination. 

The movements of the Klan were mysterious. At 
dead of night, loud knocks would be heard at the door 
of a negro cabin, and terrible visitors, wrapped like 
ghosts in winding sheets, would appear before the eyes 
of the frightened blacks. They seemed to the super- 
stitious negroes to be the spirits of the dead Confeder- 
ates, returning to avenge their unhappy fate. If the 
bolder negroes and their white leaders gave no heed to 
the warnings of the Kuklux, they were whipped, driven 
away, and in some instances murdered. This violence 
aroused great indignation and led to measures to put an 
end to the Kuklux. 

501. The Fifteenth Amendment (1869) ; The Force 
Bills (1870-1871). To give the negro greater protection. 
Congress passed the Fifteenth Amendment, which 
declares that the right to vote shall never be taken 
away from any citizen "on account of race, color, or 
previous condition of servitude."* Virginia, Georgia, 
Mississippi, and Texas were compelled to vote for this 
amendment before being fully restored to the Union. 

1 Amendments, Article XV. 



394 New Political Problems 

Congress went still further in its efforts to protect the 
freedman in the use of his new rights. In the spring of 
1870, and again a year later, the Republican majority, 
against much opposition, passed the famous " Force 
Bills," providing fines and imprisonment for any one 
who even tried to prevent the negro from voting or to 
keep his vote from being counted. 

In spite of these laws the trouble continued in parts 
of the reconstructed states, and President Grant sent 
troops to preserve order. He hesitated to do this, for 
ill-feeling between the two sections was thus kept alive. 
Finally, in 1872, Congress passed an Amnesty Act, 
granting a larger number of ex-Confederates the right 
to vote and hold office, which brought about a better 
state of feeling between the North and South. 

NEW POLITICAL PROBLEMS 

FOREIGN RELATIONS 

502. France and Mexico. During the war some very 
important questions arose with foreign nations, which 
had to wait for peace before being settled. One of these 
questions grew out of the fact that the republic of 
Mexico was deeply in debt to several European nations. 
This gave France an excuse for sending an army to 
Mexico (1862). Once there, her army overthrew the 
republic, set up a monarchy, and put Maximilian of 
Austria on the throne. 

This invasion was a direct violation of the Monroe 
Doctrine (§ 340), but although the United States pro- 
tested, her hands were tied. As soon as peace came, 
however, Sheridan was sent with a veteran army to 
Texas to watch affairs in Mexico. The French forces 
were at once, withdrawn, and the Mexicans, renewing 
the fight, overthrew the monarchy and captured and 
shot Maximilian. 



Foreign Relations 



395 



503. The Purchase of Alaska from Russia. In 1867 
the area of the United States was greatly extended by 
the purchase of Alaska from Russia, for the sum of seven 
million two hundred thousand dollars. Alaska contains 
more than five hundred and seventy thousand square 
miles. The purchase showed the vigor and strength of 
the nation, notwithstanding the long war, and removed 
another European nation from the American continent, 
thus making easier the enforcement of the Monroe 




THE ALASKA PURCHASE OF 1867 

Doctrine. (See map above.) Alaska's commerce now 
amounts to many times its purchase price each year, 
because of its great wealth in minerals, fish, and furs. 

504. Our Claims Against England. Another ques- 
tion arising out of the war was whether England ought 
to pay the United States for damages to our trade and 
commerce done by Confederate war vessels, especially 
the "Alabama," which had been fitted out in English ports 
(§474). England finally agreed to submit the question 
to arbitration. 

On the Board of Commissioners, besides an American 
and an Englishman, sat a commissioner from Switzer- 
land, one from Italy, and a third from Brazil. Their 



39^ 



Nciu Political Problems 




THE GENEVA TRIBUNAL 



meetinj^s were held in Geneva, Switzerland, and for 
many months the claims and arguments of the two 

nations 
were heard. 
It was at 
last decided 
(1872) that 
» England 
fi should pay 
f^'^the United 
:^l States fif- 
teen million 
five hun- 
dred thou- 
sand dollars for damages done. This method of settling 
the "Alabama Claims" illustrated to the nations of the 
world a happier way of deciding disputes than by war. 

OLD PARTIES DIVIDE AND NEW ONES RISE 

505. Old Parties Split. For some time many Re- 
publicans had been in favor of a more liberal policy 
toward the reconstructed states. This idea, strongest 
in Missouri, spread to other states, and finally led to a 
national convention at Cincinnati in 1872. 

These " Liberal Republicans, " as they were called, 
nominated Horace Greeley for President and B. Gratz 
Brown for Vice-President. Their platform demanded 
amnesty for all former Confederates, universal suffrage, 
and a reform of the civil service ; that is, of the manner 
of appointing men to public office. 

Because the Democratic National Convention decided 
to support Horace Greeley, many dissatisfied Democrats 
nominated candidates of their own. The majority of 
the Republicans renominated President Grant and 
added Henry Wilson as their candidate for Vice-Presi- 
dent. 



Old Parties Divide and Nciv Ones Rise 397 

506. New Parties Formed. Because of this dissatis- 
faction with the old parties and old questions, growing 
out of the war, two new parties sprang into existence. 

For several years laboring men had been holding 
national meetings to discuss their interests. In 1872 
the Labor party nominated candidates and declared in 
favor of paper money, an eight-hour law, and of keeping 
Chinese out of this country. Ever since the discovery of 
gold in California (§ 397), Chinese laborers had been com- 
ing to this country. California had tried in vain to keep 
them out, and since Congress did not act, the Labor 
party asked the people to vote against their admission. 

We have already seen the origin of the temperance 
movement (§ 361). By i860, eight states, led by Maine, 
had prohibited the sale of liquor. After the war, temper- 
ance organizations, such as the Good Templars, began 
to agitaie in favor of a national Prohibition party to 
bring about the destruction of the liquor traffic by Con- 
gress. This party nominated its first candidates in 1872. 

507. The Campaign of 1872. In spite of many can- 
didates the struggle in 1872 really narrowed down to 
Grant and Greeley. Perhaps the most interesting per- 
son in this political battle was Horace Greeley, founder 
and editor of the New York Tribune, whose nomination 
had divided both the old parties. He had been an anti- 
slavery Whig, a Republican in favor of the abolition of 
slavery even before Lincoln, had signed the bail bond of 
Jefferson Davis (§§467, 478), and he was now the candi- 
date of the party he had so long opposed. 

Greeley visited several states, addressed thousands of 
people, and aroused great enthusiasm. But the election 
was an overwhelming defeat for him. He carried only 
six states. The rejoicing of the victors was hardly over 
before the great editor, broken by overwork and by 
family sorrow, was in his grave. 



39? New Political Problems 

508. Financial Conditions (1873). There were "hard 
times" just after the Revolution, just after the War of 
1 8 12, in the year 1837, and again in 1857. Grant's 
second administration had hardly opened (1873) before 
the country was in the midst of the most distressing 
financial panic it had yet suffered. 

The war had made a great change in our ways of 
doing business. Men not only wanted more money, but 
to make it more quickly than ever before. Corporations 
did business on a bigger scale, increased their capital, 
and reached out after more business. Railroads grew 
faster than population. 

But while this great change in business was taking 
place, the government decreased the national debt by 
taking one hundred million dollars of "greenbacks" out 
of circulation. In 1871 over sixty million dollars in 
gold and silver were also taken from the United States 
to European countries, because we bought more goods 
from them than we sold to them. Again, the disastrous 
fires in Chicago (1871) and in Boston (1872) destroyed 
three hundred millions of property. 

509. The Great Panic. All these influences, and 
others, unsettled business, and when the rich firm of 
Jay Cooke & Co. failed, exciting scenes took place in 
New York City. Crowds of shouting people filled the 
sidewalks in the neighborhood of Wall Street. They 
swarmed into the basement of the building occupied by 
the doomed firm, climbed over the railings, and even 
pushed their way into the offices. Policemen and detec- 
tives had to be called to protect the firm. 

The excitement spread and the whole country took 
alarm. " Runs " on banks occurred everywhere, but this 
only made matters worse. Over ten thousand business 
failures occurred in 1873 and 1874. But the greatest loss 
and the greatest suffering were borne by the millions 



Old Parties Divide and New Ones Rise 399 

of wage-earners who were either thrown out of work or 
had their wages cut down (§351). 

510. Political Reaction (1873-1874). At once public 
opinion began to turn in favor of the Democrats. The 
Republicans, it was charged, had not only decreased the 
amount of money till the panic was caused, but had 
even refused to issue more "greenbacks" to relieve 
business distress. 

During the preceding campaign, newspapers and 
campaign speakers had loudly declared that dishonest 
officeholders and their friends were robbing the govern- 
ment, and that even Congressmen had been bribed by 
the Credit Mobilier, a corporation which was building 
the Union Pacific railroad. Congress* condemned two 
of its own members, and public sentiment punished 
others, for their conduct in the affair. 

Congress had also passed what is known as the 
"Salary Grab." This act raised the President's salary 
from twenty-five thousand dollars to fifty thousand dol- 
lars, and Congressmen's from five thousand dollars to 
seven thousand five hundred dollars, and increased the 
pay of several other high officials. Such action was not 
improper when one considers the increase in the cost 
of living in Washington, but unfortunately the increased 
pay for Congressmen was made to date from the begin- 
ning of their term. Public opinion condemned the sal- 
ary grab, and, although some Representatives refused 
the increase, and the "back pay" part of the law was 
repealed, the impression gained ground that a change 
of parties ought to be made. 

Many people were also dissatisfied with the continued 
use of troops to support the "carpetbag" governments 
in the South. The result was that in the elections of 
1 874 the Democrats, for the first time since the war, won 
the House of Representatives by a large majority. 

1 Constitution, Article I., Sec. $, H 2. 



400 



New Political Proble-.ns 



511. The Specie Payment Law (1875); The Whisky 
Ring. Early in 1875 Congress enacted that, after Janu- 
ary I, 1879, the Secretary of the Treasury should pay 
out coin for all paper money presented to the Treasury, 
thus providing for " the resumption of specie payment." 
For the first time since the war, gold and silver could 
be obtained for "greenbacks." Many persons did not 
understand the meaning of the measure and feared that 
it was only a scheme to get rid of the greenbacks. 

In this same year came the discovery of the "Whisky 
Ring," a corrupt band of distillers and officers who 
succeeded in one year in robbing the government of 
nearly two million dollars. Although St. Louis was the 
center of its operations, it had members in other cities. 
Largely by the aid of St. Louis newspapers, the work of 
the ring was discovered and over two hundred persons 
were indicted. Thus several burning questions entered 

into the approaching Presidential 
campaign. 

512. The Hayes-Tilden Cam- 
paign ( 1876). The first parties in 
the field with candidates were 
the Prohibition (§ 506) and the 
Greenback. The Greenback 
party nominated Peter Cooper, 
the noble New York philanthro- 
pist, and demanded the repeal of 
the specie resumption law and 
the issue of more paper money. 
The Republicans named the 
thrice elected Governor of Ohio, 
Rutherford B. Hayes, and Will- 
iam A. Wheeler of New York. The platform endorsed 
President Grant's administration and his recommenda- 
tion for a reform in the way of appointing government 




SAMUEL J. TILDEN 

From a pfiotozrapli by Sarony, 



a pli 
Ne 



Old Parties Divide and Neiv Ones Rise 401 

officers, favored a protective tariff, and opposed granting- 
government lands to corporations composed of private 
individuals. 

The Democrats put up Samuel J. Tilden, who belonged 
to the reform portion of his party in New York. He had 
just aided in exposing and punishing a corrupt body of 
men in New York ^_, r-'-- , - "^A\\ 




City known as the ./^.x^'V^"^'"'-'^?:*-^^ II 

"Tweed Ring." T^^^y 

The Democrats ' ' ^ 

demanded re- 
forms in every 
part of the gov- 
ernment. 

The campaign ^\^; 
was full of excite- 
ment, for it ap- f ^\^ 

peared that for election excitement in new vork city in 1876 

the first time since 1856, the Democrats were likely to elect 
a President. When the votes were cast the election was 
in doubt. Both of the old parties claimed the victory, and 
the dispute caused great anxiety throughout the country. 
513. Returning Boards; The Electoral Commission. 
The dispute centered mainly on the electoral votes of 
South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana. The "carpet- 
bag" governments of these three states had established 
committees of men called "returning boards" to count 
the votes and decide who were elected. These commit- 
tees decided in favor of the Republicans, but the Dem- 
ocrats declared that they had been cheated out of the 
election and demanded that Congress count electoral 
votes from these states instead of the Republican votes. 
If all electoral votes in dispute should be counted for 
the Republicans, Hayes would receive one hundred and 
eighty-five and Tilden one hundred and eighty-four. 

27 



402 



New Political Problems 




With two sets of votes from some states, and with 
the Senate Republican and the House Democratic, it 
SJsK^^si:, appeared impossible for Con- 

gress to count the votes in the 
way it had done for nearly one 
hundred years. Therefore, with- 
out authority from the Consti- 
tution, Congress established an 
"Electoral Commission" to 
decide which way the disputed 
votes should be counted. The 
Commission was composed of 
five Senators, five Representa- 
tives, and five Justices of the 
Supreme Court. Eight were 
Republicans and seven were 
Democrats. The decision was 
in favor of the Republicans by a 
vote of eight to seven, and Hayes was declared President. 
Where party feeling ran so high the result could hardly 
have been different. Had the Commission been composed 
of a majority of Democrats, very probably Tilden would 
have been declared elected. Against such party bitter- 
ness Washington had warned the country in his farewell 
address (§ 289). Thoughtful persons everywhere rejoiced 
that the dispute had been settled in a peaceful way. 

514. Fall of the Carpetbag Governments. President 
Hayes was a man of great moral courage. Although 
he had been bitterly opposed by the Democratic party, 
he immediately did what they most favored, and many 
Republicans opposed — he removed the troops from the 
South. The "carpetbag" governments were unable to 
stand without the soldiers, and the Southern Democrats 
at once obtained control of these states. For this act the 
President was both blamed and praised. The event 



RUTHERFORD B. HAYES 

From a photograph bv Pach Bros., 
New York City 



Old Parties Divide and New Ones Rise 



403 



gradually encouraged a better feeling between the two 
< sections, especially since President Hayes appointed a 
) Southern Democrat, David M. Key, Postmaster-General. 

515. New Money Legislation. In 1873 Congress 
had stopped the coinage of the old silver dollar. Shortly 
afterward, new and rich silver mines were discovered in 
some of the Western states. Immediately there arose a 
demand for coining silver again. Accordingly Congress- 
man Bland of Missouri introduced a measure which 
required the government to coin, every month, not less 
than two or more than four million silver dollars. Presi- 
dent Hayes refused to sign the Bland Bill, but Congress 
passed it over his veto (1878). Although the silver dol- 
lar was made a legal tender and in the United States 
would buy as much as a gold dollar, the actual value of 
the silver in a silver dollar was 
less than that of the gold in a 
gold dollar. 

A year later, according to law, 
specie payment was resumed 
(§•511 ), but since everybody could 
get gold for greenbacks, nobody 
cared to make the change. From 
that time American paper money 
has been worth one hundred 
cents on the dollar and American 
credit has been so strengthened 
that the government has borrowed 
all the money it needed at a lower 
rate of interest than ever before. 

516. The Election of 1880. The liberal administra- 
tion of President Hayes had divided the Republicans 
somewhat, and a very resolute portion tried, in the party 
convention at Chicago, to nominate General Grant for a 
"third term," but public opinion was so strongly in 




RICHARD P. BLAND 

From a photograph by Bell., Wash- 
ington., D. C. 



404 



Neiv Political Problems 




favor of following the example of Washington and 
Jefferson that it was impossible to nominate even so 
popular a man as General Grant for a "third term." 

General James A. Garfield of 
Ohio and Chester A. Arthur 
of New York were finally nom- 
inated on a platform positively- 
demanding a reform of the civil 
service (§ 505) and the suppres- 
sion of polygamy, which was 
practiced by the Mormons (§3 59). 
The Prohibitionists nomi- 
nated the great temperance 
teacher, General Neal Dow, and 
the Greenbacks named General 
James B. Weaver of Iowa. 

General Winfield Scott Han- 
cock of Pennsylvania, a hero 
of Gettysburg, and William H. 
English of Indiana, were presented to the people by the 
Democrats, whose platform called for " honest money " 
and a ** tariff for revenue only." The Republicans not 
only won the Presidency, but also got back the House. 
517. The Assassination of President Garfield. When 
Garfield was inaugurated, a most promising administra- 
tion was begun. The new President was a wise and 
noble man, and the people believed that he would do 
many things for the good of all parties and all sections. 
Garfield had not even sought to be nominated, but on 
the other hand had made a great speech before the con- 
vention in favor of n<miinating Senator John Sherman. 
Public opinion supported him in refusing to give office 
to men merely because members of Congress demanded 
their appointment ; but Garfield's conduct in this matter 
caused much ill-feeling, and a disappointed office-seeker 



JAMES A. GARFIELD 

After a photograph fallen by E. Bier 
stadty New York City 



Old Parties Divide and Neiv Ones Rise 



405 



fatally shot the President, July 2, 1881, as he was about 
to take the train to celebrate the Fourth of July in his 
old college town. For three months the people were 
moved with the deepest sympathy, while the noble 
sufferer hovered between life and death. During this 
time they learned to hate the 
"spoils system" as never 
before. President Garfield died 
at Long Branch, New Jersey, 
September 19, 1881. 

518. Civil Service Reform; 
The Pendleton Bill (1883). 
The example set by Andrew 
Jackson, of turning men out of 
office because they did not vote 
for him and of putting others 
in because they did, had been 
followed up to this time (§ 348). 
Dishonest and unfit men some- 
times obtained office and the Chester a. arthur 

. . From a pJwtograph bv Sarony, New 

public business was often York cfty 

injured. President Grant had called for a reform of the 
civil service, but after the death of Garfield the public 
also demanded it. 

Senator Pendleton, an Ohio Democrat, introduced a 
bill which Congress passed, providing that the President 
appoint Civil Service Commissioners who should exam- 
ine candidates for certain offices. President Arthur 
signed the bill and men soon began to obtain office 
because they were fitted for it, and not because they were 
Republicans or Democrats. Only a small number of 
offices were filled by examination at first, but now the 
great majority are so filled. 

In the preceding year Congress passed two other im- 
portant measures. The first provided for the suppression 




4o6 



New Political Problems 



of polygamy (§ 359), and the other prohibited Chinese 
laborers from coming into the United States for ten 
years. Both of .these measures had been called for in 
various party platforms. 

519. The Democrats Victorious (1884). In prepar- 
ing for the campaign of 1884, the Republicans selected 
James G. Blaine of Maine, 'three times Speaker of the 
House of Representatives, and Senator John A. Logan 
of Illinois, who had been a popular Union general. The 
Prohibitionists united on John P. St. John of Kansas, 

and the Greenback-Labor party 
put up General Benjamin F. Butler 
of ^lassachusetts. 

The Democrats nominated 
Grover Cleveland of New York 
and Senator Thomas A. Hendricks 
of Indiana. Cleveland had been 
mayor of Buffalo and later had been 
elected governor of New York 
by an overwhelming majority. 
The old question of the tariff was 
one of the main issues of the 
Presidential campaign. Both New 
York and Indiana were doubtful 

JAMES G. BLAINE 

From a photograph taken by StatCS. A UUmbcr of Rcpubli- 
Matthew B. Brady at IV ashing- , . ^ ^ . . i • 

ton, D. c. cans, who refused to support their 

party candidates, took the name of Independents and 
worked for the election of Cleveland. They were nick- 
named "Mugwumps." 

This split among the Republicans, taken with the 
energetic campaigning of the Prohibitionists, who drew 
votes largely from the Republicans, made the canvass 
exciting and the result doubtful. When election day 
was over, both Republicans and Democrats claimed the 
victory, but after several days of anxiety it was found 





Old Paj'ties Divide and Nezv Ones Rise 407 

that Cleveland had won by carrying the great state of New 
York by a few hundred votes. There was great rejoicing 
among the Democrats over their 
first President since 1861. 

520. Important Legislation 
of Cleveland's Administration. 
Among important measures 
passed by Congress and signed 
by President Cleveland were the 
following : ^^ 

1. A law arranging the Presi- 
dential succession in case both 
President and Vice-President \^ 
could not serve. This law pro- 
vides that the Secretary of State, ,/ y jj tJftS^^i^*/ 
followed by other members of '' /"'t 
the Cabinet in the order of the grover Cleveland 

r .1 • rn 111 . From a photograph by Bell, 

creation of their offices, shall act washijtgton, d. c. 

as President until the disability is removed or a new 

President has been elected.' 

2. An Interstate Commerce Commission was estab- 
lished (1887) to regulate passenger and freight rates 
between states. The purpose was to prevent railroads 
from making " unjust discriminations " between different 
persons and different places.' 

J. For some time public opinion had called for a 
law against importing foreign laborers under contract 
to work for certain persons or companies. In 1885 the 
importation of such laborers was prohibited. 

4.. Congress tried to shut out the Chinese more 
completely by declaring that when one had once left 
America he should not return. The difficulty of keep- 
ing Chinamen out was greatly increased because they 
came in by way of Canada, where no law prevented 
their admission (§ 506). 

1 Constitution, Article II., Sec. i, ^ 6. 

2 Constitution, Article I., Sec. 8, H ,1. 



408 Nezv Political Problems 

521. The Surplus and the Mills Bill. The war had 

left an enormous debt on the country (§487). vSome 
feared it would never be paid, but in a little more than 
twenty years almost half of it had been swept away. 
The debt was largely paid by means of money obtained 
from the tariff. On this account, as well as to protect 
American manufacturers, the tariff had not been greatly 
reduced. As the national debt grew less, many kinds 
of taxes had been removed and a demand arose for 
reducing the tariff also. The Republicans, like the old 
Whigs, were champions of the protective tariff, while 
the Democrats, following the history of their party, 
demanded a "tariff for revenue only" (§343). 

By the close of Cleveland's first term the govern- 
ment had paid all the national debt which was then due 
(1887), and had a large amount of money left in the 
Treasury. Everybody agreed that it was unwise to 
leave this money idle, but they differed widely as to 
what should be done with it. Some declared that it 
ought to be used in paying off the remaining portion 
of the debt, but the bonds were not then due and their 
owners could refuse to give them up or could demand 
a higher price than their face value. Others said that 
the surplus should be spent for government works and 
for public education, especially in the South, where more 
schools were needed. But President Cleveland pro- 
posed, in a message to Congress, to reduce the surplus 
by reducing the tariff. Congressman R. Q. Mills of 
Texas, a Democratic leader, introduced, and the House 
passed, a bill for cutting down the protective tariff. 
This the Senate rejected, and the question became an 
issue in the campaign of 1888. 

522. The Campaign of 1888 ; Election of Benjamin 
Harrison. The Democrats renominated Grover Cleve- 
land and added Allen G. Thurman, an old-time Ohio 



Old Parties Divide and Ncxv Ones Rise 



409 



Democrat, for Vice-President. The Republicans named 
Benjamin Harrison, Senator from Indiana, and Levi P. 
Morton of New York. The Prohibitionists presented 
General Clinton B. Fiske of New Jersey, and two Labor 
parties nominated candidates. 

Cleveland lost the support of some Democrats because 
he had not turned enough Republicans out of office, and 
of some civil-service reformers because he had turned out 
too many. Many veterans of the war refused to support 
him because he had vetoed too many pension bills. 

But the great issues were the tariff and the surplus. 
The Republicans tried to repeat the campaign of 1840, 
since their candidate was a grandson of William Henry 
Harrison (§353). Great proces- 
sions with log cabins and rac- 
coons, striking campaign songs, 
and Tippecanoe clubs were some 
of the features. Harrison won a 
majority of the electoral votes, 
although Cleveland obtained a 
majority of the popular vote. 

523. Important Legislation; 
Political Reaction. The Repub- 
licans were now in power in both 
branches of the national govern- 
ment, and proceeded to carry 
out their ideas in the following 
measures : 

/. The "McKinley Bill," ^ benjamin harrison 

■> ' Fy-om a photograph taken tn rSqo, 

which raised the tariff for pro- ^J' ^- ^iman, New York cuy 
tective purposes, but gave the President power to make 
"reciprocity agreements" with other nations; that is, 
agreements to reduce the tariff on each other's goods. 

2. A new pension law, which largely increased the 
number of old soldiers receiving pensions. . 




4IO 



New Political Problems 




J. The "Sherman Act," which amended the Bland 
law so that, instead of coining- so much silver money, 
the government was to buy four million five hundred 

thousand ounces of silver each 
month, keep it in the Treasury, 
and issue paper money called 
silver certificates. 

The state and congressional 
elections in 1890 showed large 
gains for the Democrats. They 
carried Republican states, such 
as Pennsylvania, and won the 
very large majority of one hun- 
dred and thirty-five in the House 
of Representatives. In this year 
a new party — the People's — 
began to show strength. 

524. The Farmers' Alliance ; 
The People's Party. We have 
seen that the farmers were 
prosperous during the war (§485). But with peace, came 
more farm products, less demand, low prices, and the 
panic. Although the government gave encouragement 
to many branches of industry, the farmers felt that little 
had been done for them. For this reason many of them 
supported the Greenback party (§ 512). 

For many years the farmers in different states had 
been organizing themselves under various names, usu- 
ally for social intercourse and to discuss matters belong- 
ing to their occupation and interests. The more they 
studied their own condition, the more clearly they saw 
that their political influence was weak because they were 
not united. Accordingly, in 1889, at a great national 
meeting in St. Louis, the Farmers' Alliance and Indus- 
trial Union was formed. This organization determined 

' Constitution, Article I., Sec. 8, H 5- 



JOHN SHERMAN 

From a photograph by Pack Bros., 
/Vew York City 



Old Parties Divide and New Ones Rise 41 1 

to see what could be done for the farmer by political 
action. In the Congressional campaign of 1890 it 
elected several Congressmen. 

Agitation for a new party arose and, in 1891, certain 
Alliance leaders, in cooperation with Labor leaders, 
formed the People's party, 

525. The Campaign of 1892; Cleveland Reelected. 
The new People's party was the first in the field, with 
General James B. Weaver as its standard-bearer (§ 516). 
The platform was new, demanding, among other things : 
(/) The free and unlimited coinage of silver and gold 
at a ratio of sixteen to one, {2) That any person whose 
income was more than four thousand dollars should pay 
a tax on it. (j) The ownership of railroads, telegraphs, 
and similar works, by the government. (^) The lending 
of money by the government to citizens at two per cent on 
the security of certain farm products. (5) That only the 
government, and not the banks, should issue money. 

The Democrats, for the third time, nominated Cleve- 
land and named Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois for Vice- 
President. The Republicans nominated Benjamin Har- 
rison and Whitelaw Reid of New York. The Democrats 
won a complete victory, and, for the first time since the 
war, both the President and Congress were theirs. 

The People's party received several electoral votes 
and more than one million popular votes. A very 
important movement in this campaign was the friend- 
ship between the Democratic and the People's parties 
in certain states west of the Mississippi. 

526. The Panic of 1893. When Cleveland again took 
up the reins of government the country was enjoying 
unusual prosperity. But suddenly a most disastrous 
panic took hold of business. Banks, business houses, 
and individuals could not pay their debts, and thousands 
of men were thrown out of work. Other thousands, 



412 



Nezv Political Problems 



finding their wages cut down, organized strikes. Men, 
women, and children suffered for want of bread. The 

number of " tramps " greatly 
increased. The Republicans 
blamed the Democrats, the 
Democrats blamed the Repub- 
licans, and the People's party 
blamed both 

It was a business "scare" 
which made people afraid to 
trust each other. In spite of 
the Bland and Sherman acts, 
~ the value of silver had gradu- 
ally fallen. At the same time 
persons took their paper money 
to the Treasury and the govern- 
ment gave them gold, thus 
gfradually decreasing the gold 

RICHARD OLNEY ® ^ ., . 

Secretary of State under Cleveland, in the TrcaSUry UUtll it waS 
From a photograph taken in iSqs by ... ^ . , , -.,.,. 

Bartlett P. A'enitey, Boston far bcloW OUC huudrcd milllOU 

dollars, the amount usually kept in the Treasury. What 
if this drain should go on till there was no gold left? 
Business men became frightened, it is said, for fear the 
government might pay out silver money instead of gold. 
Foreigners who had invested money in this country 
began to withdraw it. The scare spread, business grew 
less, hard times set in, and suffering followed. 

527. Repeal of the Sherman Act ; Parties Split 
(1893). President Cleveland called an extra session of 
Congress'and advised the repeal of the Sherman Act, in 
order to stop the drain on the gold supply. The debates 
were long and exciting. The Democrats and Repub- 
licans in the silver-mining states — Nevada, Idaho, 
Montana, Utah, Colorado, Wyoming, and South Dakota — 
joined the People's party in opposing its repeal. The 




'Constitution, Article II., Sec. 3. 



Old Parties Divide and Mew Ones Rise 413 

fall in the price of silver, together with the panic, had 
brought disaster to all lines of business in these states. 
Encouraged by supporters in other states, a Bimetal- 
lic League was formed to oppose repeal and to favor the 
free coinage of silver. But in spite of all this oppo- 
sition the law was repealed by a union • of Republican 
and Democratic Congressmen. 

528. The Wilson Bill. But the drain on the gold in 
the Treasury still went on and business did not improve. 
Democrats said that business would revive if the tariff 
were reduced, while Republicans declared that it could 
not because Democrats threatened to reduce the tariff. 

William L. Wilson, a Democratic leader from West 
Virginia, introduced a bill reducing the tariff which was 
amended, and passed, but became a law without the 
President's signature (1894). (Constitution, Article I., 
§ 7, ^[ 2.) This act provided that incomes of more than 
four thousand dollars should be taxed two per cent 
(§ 487). This part of the law was afterward declared 
unconstitutional by the Supreme Court. 

529. Foreign Relations and Arbitration. In 1893 
American sailors aided in 
overthrowing the govern- 
ment of the queen of Hawaii 
and in setting up a Republic. 
President Cleveland refused 
to accept a treaty annexing 
the islands to the country. 

In this year the United 
States and England settled a 
dispute, over seal catching in 
the Bering Sea, by means of a 
Court of Arbitration. The Court decided against the 
United States; but also in favor of protecting the seals. 
The decision was a victory for peace over war, (See 504.) 

1 Constitution, Article I., Sec. 7« 
« Amendments, Articla XVI. 



Oahu I. 



Kauai I. 

m 

NUHUA 

^ u , N^ MOLOKAI.I. 

xionolulu" ESS) 

Maui'I 



Lanai 

Kahoolawe' 

I ^....^ 

^""■'' Hilo 

Hawaii I-^||#i 



THE HAWAIIAN GROUP OF ISLANDS 



414 



AVti' Political Problems 



In 1895 the United States, in following out the Mon- 
roe Doctrine, was drawn into a quarrel between Vene- 
zuela and Great Britain over the boundary line of British 
Guiana. Venezuela wished to submit the dispute to 
arbitration, but Great Britain refused. The Secretary 
of State then informed the British government that the 
United States was opposed to the increasing of British 
territory in America by force, and urged that the ques- 
tion be settled by arbitration. In her reply Great Britain 
spoke in opposition to the Monroe Doctrine (§ 340) and 
again refused to arbitrate (§ 504). President Cleveland 

immediately sent a message to 
Congress w^hich showed his de- 
termination to protect Venezuela 
against an unjust seizure of her 
territory. This message pro- 
duced great excitement in Eng- 
land and America. After further 
discussion the boundary dispute 
was happily settled by arbi- 
tration. 

530. The Campaign of 1896. 
The difference of opinion in 
regard to money and in regard 
to the cause and cure of the 
panic, produced their natural 
effects in the campaign of 1896. 
When the Republicans, in convention at St. Louis, nomi- 
nated William McKinley of Ohio, and declared against 
the " free coinage of silver," twenty-one delegates from 
the silver states left the party. When the Democrats, in 
convention at Chicago, nominated William J. Bryan of 
Nebraska, and declared for the free coinage of silver at the 
ratio of sixteen to one, a large number of ''gold" Demo, 
crats left the party and nominated a ticket of their own. 




WILLIAM J. BRYAN 



From apliotoptaph by 
Columbus, Ohio 



Baker, 




DRIVING THE "GOLDEN SPIKE" ON THE UNION PACIFIC 

The first coiiiiiwrcial link betiveen ilie Atlantic and Pacific oceans 



The Nczv Northwest 415 

The " silver " Republicans and a majority of the Peo- 
ple's party supported Bryan, while thousands of " gold " 
Democrats favored McKinley. Seldom have the people 
better understood the issues in a campaign, for they read 
and studied the questions as never before. The Repub- 
licans were victorious by a large majority of the popu- 
lar vote. 

Immediately after his inauguration McKinley called 
an extra session of Congress to consider tariff legislation. 
The "Dingley Law," a high protective measure, was the 
result (1897). 

A NEW INDUSTRIAL ERA 

THE NEW NORTHWEST 

531. The Discovery of Gold and Silver; The Move- 
ment of Population. From colonial days we have seen 
population moving westward. Now we are to witness 
the last great wave flowing westward and destroying 
forever the "western frontier." The discovery of gold 
had filled California with people. By 1856 public opin- 
ion called for a railroad to cross the mountains and unite 
the Mississippi River and the Pacific Ocean. But many 
declared such a road impossible. 

In 1858 news came that gold had been discovered 
near Pike's Peak (§ 301), and soon the mining camp was 
turned into the thriving town of Denver. People came 
so rapidly that Colorado Territory was established (186 1). 
In 1859 silver was found in the Territory of Utah. Again 
population followed, this time from the westward as well 
as from the eastward. The district thus settled was set 
off and called Nevada (1861). 

532. The Pony Express, the Overland Stage, and 
the Pacific Railroad. As these "way stations" to the 
Pacific sprang up, the demand for a railroad grew more 
emphatic. But the people could not wait, and hence 



4i6 



A New Indust7-ial Era 



came the "pony express," which carried mail by rapid 
riding couriers, from station to station, between St. 
Joseph, Missouri, and San Francisco. It was not long 
before overland stage and express companies were car- 
rying packages and passengers. But this was still too 
slow and too dangerous. The increase of population 
furnished new arguments for a railroad. 

o95' 7 " 




THE OVERLAND STAGE 



Finally Congress granted more than fifty million 
dollars to two railroad companies — the Union Pacific, 
which worked from Omaha westward, and the Central 
Pacific, which worked from San Francisco eastward. In 
addition to this large appropriation, every other " sec- 
tion " of land along the road, and for twenty miles on 
each side, was granted to the companies. The work was 
a gigantic undertaking. Across valleys, over, around, or 
through mountains, the slow task of bringing the two 
lines together went on. The work was completed with 
great ceremony by the driving of a golden spike near 
Ogden, Utah, May lo, 1869. (See picture facing page 415.) 

Even before this road was finished, others to the 
Pacific were already being planned. No less than five 




^*°^° PACIFIC 



The Neiv Northwest 417 

railroads to-day cross the mountains and connect the 
Pacific and Rocky Mountain states with the great trade 
centers of the North, East, and South. 

533, The Homestead Law; The Census of 1870; 
New States. The increase in western population 
encouraged the building of the Pacific and other rail- 
roads. These roads in turn encouraged the growth of 
population in the new regions. But the increase was 
probably due more to the new " Homestead Law " than 
to the discovery of gold and silver or to the building of 
railroads. 

This law (1862) gave a farm of one hundred and sixty 
acres of government land to every settler who would 
build a house and cultivate and improve the soil within 
a given time. Thousands of families in the older states 
removed to the unoccupied lands in the new states and 
territories. Thousands of hardy emigrants from north- 
ern Europe came and obtained farms, a thing impossible 
to them in their native land. 

Although our country had passed through a terrible 
four-years' war, the census of 1870 showed more than 
thirty-eight million people, and proved that the North 
and West had grown more rapidly than most European 
nations in time of peace. The five leading cities were: 
New York, with nine hundred and forty-two thousand 
inhabitants; Philadelphia, with six hundred and seventy- 
four thousand; Brooklyn, three hundred and ninety-six 
thousand; St. Louis, three hundred and ten thousand 
eight hundred, and Chicago with two hundred and 
ninety-eight thousand nine hundred. Nevada (1864) 
and Nebraska (1869) had already been admitted as states. 
Colorado came in as the "Centennial" state (1876).' 

534. Gold and Silver in the Northwest; Another 
Pacific Road and More New States. The great war had 
hardly opened before gold and silver were discovered 

1 Constitution, Article IV., Sec. 3. 



41 8 A New Industrial Era 

in the eastern portion of Washington Territory, and the 
Territory of Idaho was set off (1863). Gold was also 
found in what is now Montana, and that region was 
organized ( 1 864). vStill farther to the eastward, in Dakota 
Territory, gold was discovered in the Black Hills (1874). 

The movement of settlers into this region brought 
agitation for another Pacific railroad. 

In 1870 work was begun on the Northern Pacific road. 
The government gave it about fifty million acres of 
land along its route, which ran from Duluth on Lake 
Superior to Puget Sound. The census of 1880 showed 
that these territories would soon be demanding admis- 
sion into the Union as states. 

North and South Dakota were the first admitted (1889). 
Later in this year came Montana and Washington, and 
in the next Idaho and Wyoming (1890), making forty- 
four states in the Union. Utah, under a wise and far- 
seeing management, had made great industrial progress, 
and now had a greater population than many states 
had when entering the Union. Congress passed the 
Edmund's Law in 1882, abolishing polygamy (§ 359), 
and in 1896 Utah was taken in as the forty-fifth state.' 

535. The Making of New Towns ; Increase in Size 

of Farms. Thousands of farmers moved into the new 

regions, carrying with them all their belongings, just as 

their fathers " moved west " earlier in our history. They 

"^."^^^ K '^^^'0^^- made the same 

^^^^- I^b^/^ife^l- - lo^g journey by 

'=5-^*:^?s^^^^^^^^!wy7^*"*^^^'^^g3^- horse and wagon, 

^^^^^^^^kl^^ - '^^^^ camping by the 

AN OLD COLONIAL PLOW waysldc. Somc- 

times a number of "movers" traveled together into 
the wilder and more distant regions, for the Indians 
did not always look with favor upon this new wave 
of immigration. 



1 Constitution, Article IV., Sec. 3. 



The New Northwest 



419 



On the broad prairies, with only boundless fields of 
waving grass and flowers in sight, the settler marked out 
his claim and began cT.C^ 

making a home. 
Very often he had -- "^t*^/rt"> ^,^1 




A SOD HOUbt ON THE PRAIRIE 



first to build a sod 
house, or "dug-- 
out," for his family, 
and stake out his 
horses and cattle until he could provide temporary 
shelter. In time others settled near by. Then came a 
schoolhouse, a church, and a store. Into a corner of this 
store came a post of&ce, and the people were once more 
in weekly communication with the old home. In a few 
years, if the location was favorable, the railroad came, 
and with it the telegraph and the daily papers from the 

great city, now only 
a few hours, instead 
of weeks, away. The 
little neighborhood 
was then in touch 
^^"with the whole world. 
In the new prairie 
states there were 
From a photograph lamis sucu as nao. 
PRAIRIE FARM hardly been dreamed 
of before i860. Wealthy men bought thousands of acres 
of the rich prairie land and began farming on a gigantic 
scale. Many teams of horses or oxen were plowing at 
once. After a few years came the steam plow. Instead 
of a few hundred acres of corn or wheat or other grain, 
there were vast fields of waving grain covering thousands 
of ^cres. Hundreds of men and horses and dozens of 
machines were needed to harvest a single farm. Within 
the last few years the harvester and thresher have been 




'^-f^Sy'f^ 



THE STEAM PLOW AT WORK ON A 



1 Constitution, Article I.. Se«. 8, ^ 7. 



420 



A New Industrial Era 



combined, and now, on some of the great farms, a huge, 
complex machine, driven by steam, makes its way 
through miles of standing grain, , ; leaving behind it 
rows of threshed, measured, and ^ \ bagged grain ready 
to be hauled to the market or to U; the mill. 







''!■,, ■■■'■■"■ ■■ , i 

A STEAM HARVESTER AND THRESHER 



From ft pbotocrmph 



536. The Grist Mill and the Steam Mill. This great 
change in grain-raising led to similar changes in the 
ways of grinding and marketing grain. Farmers used 
to throw a bag of corn or wheat on a horse, put a boy 
on top, and send him to a grist mill where he waited 
his turn. If it was a "horse mill," the boy might use 
his horse to grind his own grain. If it was a water 

mill, as was generally the case, 
he might go fishing until his 
grist was ground. Almost every 
neighborhoodwhichhada stream 
^^> of water with a good current, had 
im^V ^^^ own water mill to grind grain 
and saw lumber. But the steam 
flouring mill and sawmill soon 
came to the towns and cities, 
and the farmer hauled his grain 
to the new mill and was paid 
money for it, or received flour and meal in exchange. 
The water mill was doomed. 




CARRYING GRAIN TO THE MILL BV 
HORSE IN THE OLD DAYS 



The Nezv Northwest 



421 



But the steam flour mill in the village was doomed 
also. Out of the "new Northwest" came a new mill. 
Great companies were 



formed in some of the 
large cities to build mills 
which could grind the 
grain as fast as the great 
prairie farms could raise 
it. Farmers began to 
haul their grain to the 
nearest shipping sta- 
tion to sell it to an agent, 
who shipped it to the great mills or stored it in big ware- 
houses called "elevators." From the mills carloads of 
flour and meal went to all parts of the nation. Even the 
farmer in New York and New England now frequently 




AN OLD WATER MILL WITH PEOPLE WAITING 
THEIR TURN 







Prom a photoprftph 

A MODERN MILlT FROM WHICH WHEAT AND FLOUR ARE SHIPPED TO ALL PARTS 

OF THE WORLD 

sells his wheat and buys flour ground in the mills of 

Minneapolis from wheat raised on the prairies of Dakota. 

537. The Old and the New Sawmill. The old water 

mill as well as the steam mill was part sawmill and was 



422 



A New Industrial Era 



largely a neighborhood affair. It had but a single saw, 
which moved slowly up and down, cutting but a single 

4 board at a time. But 
when the circular or 
^•^v rotary saw came, these 
5 '■ slow ways began to dis- 
appear. Along the 
>_^ waterways or railroads 
near to the great pine 
r forests of Michigan, 
Wisconsin, Minnesota, 
and the North Pacific 
states, lumber companies have built mills. Each is sup- 
plied with many saws whose motion is so rapid that the 
eye can hardly see it. 

Thousands of men, every winter, while the snow is 
deep, make their way into the forests to cut logs and 
drag them to some river or lake, by means of which they 
are floated to mills. From these mills the lumber is sent 
all over the country to lumber yards. Even the village 




THE OLD WATER SAWMILL 




THE LARGEST LUMBER MILL IN THE WORLD 



From a pbotognpb 



lumber dealer usually gets his supply from the great 
companies, instead of from the neighborhood sawmill. 



The Nezu Northwest 



423 



538. Cattle Ranches and Packing Houses. Once 
the American farmer raised hogs, sheep, and cattle for 
his own table and to supply the town or city near by. In 
the large cities, just before and after the war, "pork-pack- 
ing establishments" were set up. But not until the "new 
West" began to raise sheep and cattle by countless thou- 
sands did the present method of handling meat begin. 




From a photograph 



COWBOYS DRIVING CATTLE FROM THE PRAIRIE PASTURAGE 



On the prairies and plateaus, from Montana and Da- 
kota to the plains of Texas, immense herds of cattle and 
sheep are pastured. When ready for the market these 
herds are driven to the shipping station and sent by rail 
to the stockyards of some great city, like Chicago, Kansas 
City, or Omaha, where a large packing house slaughters 
them and ships the meat to dealers in various parts of the 
country. Even the village butcher often receives his 
beef and mutton from some city packing house instead 
of from the farmers of his neighborhood. 



424 A New Industrial Era 

539. The Old and the New Miners and Their Mines. 

The miners who rushed to California, and a little later 
to Nevada, depended on "pickax and rocker" for suc- 
cess. Each vStaked his own claim, dug and washed out 
his own gold. They worked only in soil and gravel 
beds near some flowing stream, and did not go far below 
the surface (§ 397). 

But soon wealthy mining companies came with their 
sluices carrying the water for miles ; with great air shafts 
and hoisting machinery which enabled miners to work 
hundreds of feet below the surface; with heavy stamp- 
ing machines for crushing the ores; and with smelting 
machines for separating the silver from the lead. Every 
year these western states mine millions of dollars worth 
of gold and silver and thus add greatly to their wealth. 
We have seen how this increase in silver mining led to 
the demand for the free coinage of silver (§ 527). 

540. A New Indian Policy and New Indian Wars. 
The new wave of immigration stirred up the Indians as 
similar movements had done earlier in our history. The 
government had begun, long ago, to place the various 
tribes on given portions of land, called "reservations." 
Here they were to live and receive aid, if necessary, 
from the government. But the agents of the government 
had frequently cheated and abused them. President 
Grant, however, gave the care of certain reservations into 
the hands of the followers of William Penn, the Friends 
(1869). Other denominations were soon given control 
over other reservations. A juster and kindlier way of 
dealing with these "wards of the nation" was thus begun. 

But the old wrongs were remembered by some of the 
tribes, especially by the Modocs of southern Oregon. 
They went upon the warpath (1873) and murdered some 
of the white settlers. They were soon driven into the 
" lava beds " of northern California, where, while holding 



TJie Neiv NortJiivest 



425 



a friendly council, they treacherously murdered General 
Canby and one of the peace commissioners. An expen- 
sive war followed; several of the Indian chiefs were 
hanged or imprisoned and the rest of the tribe were sent 
to the Indian Territory, where they have made good 
progress toward civilization. 




GENERAL CUSTER S LAST FIGHT 



The final ?-us/i of the Indian warriors that resulted in (he death of the last of that 

brave band 

The difficulty with the Modocs was hardly settled 
before the Sioux Indians, led by their chief, Sitting Bull, 
put on the war paint. The discovery of gold in the 
Black Hills and the presence of vast herds of buffalo had 
brought a flood of miners and hunters into the Sioux 
reservation in Dakota. The Indians murdered settlers 
in parts of Montana and Wyoming, and troops were sent 
to subdue them (1876). While dashing on in pursuit 
of the Indians, General Custer and his command of about 
two hundred and sixty men were suddenly surrounded 
by ten times their number of wild Sioux horsemen. 
Using their horses for breastworks, the soldiers fought 
desperately while the Indians galloped round and round 
them, pouring in a deadly fire. Fighting to the last, 



426 



A New Industrial Era 



the brave general and his men were slain. Not one 
escaped. Other troops defeated the Indians ; Sitting Bull 
escaped to Canada and peace was restored. 

541. Opening Reservations; Oklahoma. Settlers, 
"boomers," and cattle men continued to crowd upon the 
lands of the Sioux. To avoid trouble, the government 
purchased the Sioux reservation in South Dakota and, 
early in 1 890, opened it to the settlers who had camped by 
the hundreds near the boundary line. But the greatest 
danger and excitement over Indian reservations occurred 
in that part of the Indian Territory which we now know 
as Oklahoma. The Seminole Indians had, long before, 
sold this region to the government on condition that no 
white man should be permitted to settle there. But 
settlers, " boomers," and " cattle kings " broke in. Again 











GUTHRIE ON THE FIRST NIGHT OF THE OPENING 



from a photograph 



and again were they driven out by government authority, 
only to return. Congress finally paid the Indians to 
open the land for settlement. 

When the opening day came (April 22, 1889), "five 
times as many people as could obtain a foothold " were 



The New Northwest 



427 



camping on the borders. When the bugle sounded, men 
with their families in wagons, men on horseback, and 
men on foot rushed over the border to their claims. The 




A flu A 

is wr> M Ik 






llMllK'Uln 



^^ Vil>- From a photograph 

GUTHRIE FOUR YEARS LATER, A THRIVING AND WELL-BUILT CITY 

first night Guthrie was a city of tents, but in ten days 
Oklahoma Avenue was outlined with frame buildings. 
Within a year it was a city of several thousand people, 
with good schools, a number of churches, several news- 
papers, and blocks of well-built business houses. Other 
towns, as Oklahoma City, also grew with astonishing 
rapidity. What seemed "boom towns" and "mushroom 
cities" proved to be places with substantial beginnings. 
542. Farming by Irrigation. Western United States 
has much waste land which if irrigated will raise good 
crops. Under President Roosevelt (1902) the Reclama- 
tion Act, which sets aside all money received from public 
lands for irrigation works, became a law. Roosevelt 
dam, Arizona, and Arrowrock dam, Idaho, are two of the 
larger projects. Through public and private effort an 
area larger than West Virginia has been made productive. 



428 A Neiv I nd it si rial lira 

THE NEW SOUTH 

543. The War Forced the South to Change. The 

war caiiscd great changes in the ways of doing things in 
the South. The old plantation, with its quiet life and 
slave labor, was destroyed. The negro now worked for 
wages or for himself, while the former planter hired 
laborers or worked himself. 

More cotton is now raised by free labor than was for- 
merly raised by slave labor. In 1894 the cotton crop was 
more than twice as large as in i860. Other crops are also 
larger than before. Sometimes the great plantations 
were divided into smaller farms, and the negroes began 
to own their own land. Thus important changes grad- 
ually came about in Southern farming. 

But even more striking is the rise in the new South 
of a great number of occupations which were hardly 
known to the old South. These have come largely from 
using the natural resources which slavery had left 
almost untouched. 

544. The South Begins to Produce Coal, Iron, Lum- 
ber, and Fruit. The mountain regions of West Virginia, 
Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, the Cilrolinas, Georgia, 
and Alabama contain rich treasures of coal, iron, and 
lumber. The old South took little notice of these, but 
the new South is digging coal for her own use and 
exporting it to Europe. She is making pig iron almost 
as rapidly as Pennsylvania, and Birmingham, Alabama, 
has become a great coal and iron center. Hundreds of 
sawmills are furnishing lumber to all parts of America, 
while her fruit is famous in all Northern markets. 

These branches of industry, once almost unknown 
in the South, have been drawing millions in Northern 
money and thousands of laborers into this section. A 
gradual revolution in Southern industry has thus been 
set in motion. 



me i\ew ::iOutn 



429 



545. Manufacturing Her Own Cotton. We have seen 
why the South once depended mainly on the North and 
on Europe for all sorts of manufactures, even for that 
of cotton clothing. But along- with the other changes 
in the South came the introduction of manufacturing. 
Foundries and factories filled with humming machinery 
and with busy men and women appeared in cities and 




From a photograph 

INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS IN THE SOUTH 

Iron and steel iv07-ks in a Southern city 

towns. Nashville, Chattanooga, Atlanta, and Birming- 
ham began to rival Northern cities in manufacturing 
establishments. Even in the smaller towns of the cot- 
ton belt, where the noise of machinery had never been 
heard, factories were built for the purpose of manufac- 
turing the cotton raised in the neighborhood. In North 
Carolina there are about two hundred fifty cotton mills; in 
both the Carolinas over four hundred. The whole South 
contains over ninety thousand factories of all kinds. 

546. Growth in Railroads and Population. Along 
with the new growth in industry came a great increase 
in railroads. They were built to reach the coal and iron 



430 



A New Industrial Era 



mines and to join Southern cities with each other and with 
the North. The completion of the Southern Pacific road 
brought San Francisco and New Orleans into closer touch. 

New Orleans has also benefited by the deepening of 
the mouths of the Mississippi. Aided by Congressional 
appropriation, James B. Eads constructed jetties which 
forced the water into narrower channels. This so 
increased the strength of the current that it carried away 
the sediment and deepened the channel so that large 
sea vessels can now come up to New Orleans. 

Another important result of the rise of new occupa- 
tions in the South is the emigration of many people 
from the North and from Europe, which has aided the 
growth of population. New towns have sprung up and 




CENTER OF POPULATION IN THE UNITED STATES, 1790 TO igcxj 
Slioiving the gradual movement westward 

the older cities, as Richmond, Charleston, and New Or- 
leans, have increased in size. The census of 1900 showed 
that the center of population, while still moving west- 
ward, had shifted two and a half miles to the southward. 



The New South 431 

547. The Growth of Texas. One of the most inter- 
esting instances of development in the new South is 
found in the state of Texas. She escaped the worst 
ravages of the war and shared in the prosperity of the 
new West. Her herds of cattle grew enormously and 
were shipped to furnish food for the people of other 
states and of Europe. Her wheat fields early rivaled 
those of more northern states. 

Texas has shared likewise in the progress of the 
new South, and in some respects has taken the lead. 
From 1885 to 1890 she exceeded all the other Southern 
states, and even the states of the new West, in the 
number of miles of new railroad constructed. Her pop- 
ulation from 1870 to 1880 grew six times faster than the 
population of the country at large, and in 1900 she stood 
sixth among the states. Newly discovered oil fields of 
almost unequaled richness are adding greatly to her 
industrial importance. 

548. Educational and Social Changes. Before i860 
the South had not made much progress toward free pub- 
lic schools. She now furnishes schools, not only for her 
white children, but for the negro children as well. This 
task was the greater because the war had destroyed so 
much property and because the states were deeply in 
debt. But the various states, as a rule, not only suc- 
ceeded in supporting the common schools by taxation, 
but again opened and gradually strengthened their state 
universities. In a few years these universities were 
larger and better than before the war. 

Fortunately, many wealthy people and religious 
bodies came to the help of the South. The war was 
hardly over before missionary and other church soci- 
eties were sending teachers and money into the South. 
They established schools of all sorts, among them col- 
leges, theological, law, medical, normal, and preparatory 



432 



A New Industrial Era 




schools. The gift to the South of three million one 
hundred thousand dollars by George Peabody, an Amer- 
ican living in London, was the 
greatest made by any single 
person. The next largest gift 
was one million dollars by John 
F. Slater of Connecticut, for the 
education of the negro. Paul 
Tulane of Alabama gave one 
million dollars for the education 
of the young people of Louisiana. 
As the wealth of the South grew, 
the number of gifts to education 
increased. 

549. An Educational Revival. 
Even now a real educational 
revival — by far the greatest in 
American history — is sweeping 
over the whole South. This 
movement is guided and aided by 
the Southern Education Board. Summer schools for 
teachers are springing up in each state, and at Knoxville, 
Tennessee, the Summer School of the South is attended 
by over two thousand teachers. The results are better 
teachers, better schools, and longer terms. 

550. Southern Expositions. Successful beginnings 
made at Atlanta and Louisville prepared the way for 
other and greater industrial expositions. 

In 1884 the "Cotton Centennial Exposition" was held 
at New Orleans to celebrate the exportation of the first 
bale of cotton from the LTnited States. In 1884 more 
than three million eight hundred thousand bales were 
exported. This exposition, showing the progress of the 
arts and industries of the South, opened the eyes of the 
country to the rapid growth of this section. 



GEORGE PEABODY 

From a lithograph made by D. C. 

Fabronius in tSbg from sittings^ 

and published by A. Trochsler, 

Boston, Massachusetts 



The New South 433 

The International Exposition at Atlanta (1895) was a 
wonderful display of what the new South had accom- 
plished in every kind of occupation. This exposition 
taught the people the great degree of progress made by 
the South, since the war, in agriculture, in all kinds of 
manufactures, and in mining and lumbering. One of the 
most interesting features of this fair was the negro 
building showing the progress made by that race. 
Many notable men, as well as thousands of others, busi- 
ness men and tourists, from ,;. many parts of the nation, 
visited and praised the Atlanta W exposition. 







Si > I 






From a photograph 
THE WOMAN'S BUILDING AT THE ATLANTA INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION 

In 1897 the state of Tennessee celebrated the centen- 
nial of her admission to the Union by holding a splen- 
did exposition at Nashville. Here one saw beautiful 
reproductions of famous Grecian buildings, and a 
Woman's Building which reproduced the " Hermitage," 
the home of Andrew Jackson, which stands not far from 
the city of Nashville. The exhibits of the products and 
manufactures of the state compared favorably with those 
of any section of the country. 

Again, in 1902, the South Carolina Inter-State and 
West Indian Exposition was held at Charleston, Here 
were gathered the products of the far South and of the 

29 



434 



A New Industrial Era 



West Indies. These great fairs not only taught useful 
lessons in arts and industry and showed the progress of 
the new South, but strengthened the ties of sympathy 
between all sections. 

NEW INVENTIONS AND INDUSTRIAL PROBLEMS 

551. Steam and Electricity. At the very opening of 
this period steam was coming rapidly into wider use. 




WIKM/: 



THE AMERICAN OCEAN LINER "NEW YORK" WHICH CROSSES THE OCEAN IN FIVE 
AND ONE-HALF DAYS 

Engines were greatly improved and passenger trains 
were soon running fifty and sixty miles an hour and at 
even a greater rate for a short distance. Engines were 
now climbing mountains and drawing millions upon mil- 
lions of tons 
of freight 
across the 
country. 
- i ^ Great lake 
'^^-steamer s, 
running 
from Duluth 
to Buffalo, 
and touch- 

A TRAIN DRAWN BY AN ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE • „. ,1 ^ 

mg at other 
lake cities, such as Chicago, Milwaukee, Detroit, and 
Cleveland, were carrying vast loads of grain, lumber, 
and iron, while ocean steamers raced across the Atlantic 
in less than five and a half days. 




New Inventions and Industrial Problems 435 

But electricity had already begun, before the opening 
of this period, to take the place of steam in driving some 
kinds of machinery. The " trolley car " has not only 
driven the "horse car" from the streets of our cities, but 
has also invaded the country, and now connects towns 
and cities many miles apart. Many freight and passen- 
ger trains are pulled by electric engines. 

552. Petroleum, Coal Gas, and Natural Gas. Just 
beforethe war, petroleum or "coal" Moil was discovered 




■•'iiL"j.J_/l<(ilj 



(r „--«u^-^- ^--^^^., ,^>^v»,,v ■ in northwestern Pennsyl- 

^^ >?-.^:ft^t/^ vania, and this state became 

'Sfl^^^M^i*'^ as famous for oil wells as 




iQ»v hK^-s^" ' • \ /^-^ ^^^ ^^^ mines. The new 

AN OIL FIELD mtENNSVLVANIA ' ^"^ ^^mC iutO WidC USC iU 

Showing a forest of derricks, the fipe shopS and f actoricS, and in 
to carry the oil, and the power houses ^ \. ^ . 

the lighting of streets, and 
the coal-oil lamp soon drove the candle from the homes. 
Later, oil was found in Ohio, Indiana, Texas, and in other 
states, and great companies were formed to refine the 
oil and ship it to all parts of America and Europe. Oil 
is now frequently used as fuel in stoves and in driving 
machinery. It is one of the most important and useful 
products. 

Gas made from coal has largely taken the place of oil 
in lighting the streets and houses in cities and larger 
towns. Although "natural gas" was known long before 
coal gas, it was not discovered in large quantities until 



A New Industrial Era 

later. Its discovery, like that of 
coal and oil, aroused great excite- 
ment, increased the price of land 
and the size of the population, and 
led to the founding of manufac- 
tories and the building of railroads 
in these localities. Natural gas 
has become so popular as a fuel 
that " pipe lines " carry it to cities 
and towns many miles outside of 
the "gas belt." But as a means 
of illumination, electricity bids 
fair to take the place of gas of 
all kinds. 

553. The Use of Steel. Just 
as electricity is taking the place 
of other means of lighting, so 
steel is crowding out other kinds 
of building material. The huge 
business structures of our great 
cities are now made largely of 
steel, while for bridges, rails, and 
machinery of all kinds, it has long 
been widely used. By the use of 
steel many things have been done 
which would have been impos- 
sible without it. The Brooklyn 
and St. Louis bridges could not 
have been built of stone and 
wood. The United States now 
leads the world in the making of 
steel. 

To supply the demand for 
THE PROGRESS OF ILLUMINATION steel, grcat works have been 
^^ov^^^^^^^J^^^^^^^^-^^^^^^^^X.^X>Xi%\i^^, especially near the 




Neiv Inventions and Industrial Problems 



437 



great coal mines. These 
works have enabled this 
country to build many steel 
ships which take the place 
of wooden vessels. Under 
President Arthur the policy 
of building a new steel navy 
was begun. Our famous 
old wooden warships, with 








A STEEL FRAME BUILDING 

Its construction permits of a great height on a 
small base. View from the front 



THE SAME BUILDING IN COURSE 
OF CONSTRUCTION 

The IV alls of mason?y are being 

built on the first and seventh floors 

at the same time. View frofn the 

back 

their great masts and 
snowy sails, were put 
aside and their places 
taken by modern battle- 
ships and cruisers, with 
revolving turrets and 
heavy guns moved by 
machinery. 



438 



A A^ezv Industrial Era 




THK OLD BICYCLE 



^:v^^ 



554. other Industrial Discoveries. 

In this period the bieycle sprang into 
wide use among all classes, and recently 
another machine for travel was invented 
— the automobile. To some extent it 
takes the place of the bicycle and the 
horse and carriage. These two inven- 
tions help people to travel beyond their 
own neighborhood and encourage the 
making of good roads. 

The telephone, which was exhibited 
at the Centennial (1876), has come 
rapidly into use and makes communication easy without 
the need of travel. The long- 
distance telephone is now doing 
work that the telegraph once did. 
The telephone not only connects 
places of business, but joins homes 
with shops and with each other. 
Other inventions now coming 
to the home are the typewriter and 
the phonograph. The latter, the 
invention of Edison, catches and 
holds the sounds of the human 
voice or the tones of any musical 
instrument. It reproduces for the 
family circle the popular songs or the concerts of famous 

orchestras. Among the 
^q^^- wonderful recent discov- 
Y^i eries are wireless teleg- 
J^ii.. . raphy and X-rays. 

"^ J Hundreds of people 
are constantly at work 
trying to perfect new 
inventions. 




THE SAFETY BICYCLE 




-Ci^: 



THE AUTOMOBILE 



New Inventions and Industrial Problems 439 

555. The Growth of Business Corporations. The 

war taught Americans how to do business on a large scale. 
Greater companies than ever before were needed to 
make rifles and cannon, to furnish food, to manufacture 
clothing, and to build gunboats and warships. After the 
war, expensive machinery for mining and manufacturing 
still required large companies of business men to make 
and use them. 

The building of railroads to all parts of the Union, 
and the stretching of telegraph wires between the towns 
and cities, made it easy for men in the same business, 
though in different parts of the country, to make plans 
for improving their business. By experience they 
learned that it was more profitable to work together than 
to work against each other. 

Many companies went a step further and formed 
what are known as "trusts," by uniting so as to make one 
great company. Instead of many railroad companies 
in the United States, a few now manage the great lines. 
Instead of scores of independent oil companies, the 
Standard Oil Company controls most of the coal oil in 
America. The same is true of other products, such as 
steel, sugar, and tobacco. One result has been to place 
manufacturing, mining, and transportation on a more 
gigantic scale than ever before in the history of the 
world, 

556. The Growth of Labor Organizations. We have 
seen that modern ways of mining, manufacturing, and 
railroading brought together large numbers of laborers. 
This made it easy for the laborers to form "unions." 
Each union elects officers and holds meetings to dis- 
cuss questions of interest to its members. 

Although labor unions had been formed before, it 
was not until this period that national organizations 
of laborers were formed. The Knights of Labor was an 



440 



A New Industrial Era 



organization of this kind, and, at one time, had a mil- 
lion members. Two objects are sought by most labor 
unions, the raising of wages and the lessening of the 
hours required for a day's work. If the companies 
refuse to grant one or both of these, or fail to agree to 
other demands of the unions, the unions may vote to 
" strike," that is, to stop work till some agreement can 
be made. In addition they may decide to "boycott" 
a firm ; that is, refuse to trade with the firm or use its 
goods. Other national organizations of labor have been 
formed, and their influence on elections and law-making 
is very great (§ 506;. 1 \ 




A RIOT 

A scene in one of the big street railroad strikes 



From % photograph 



557. Railroad and Other Strikes (1877 and 1886). 

As a result of the panic which began in 1873, several 
of the leading railroads reduced the wages of their men. 
Suddenly thousands of these men refused to work and 
refused to permit others to take their places. Trains 



New Inventions and Industrial Problems 441 

ceased to run. Mobs took possession of railway stations 
and shops in several of the large cities, and in Pittsburgh 
they destroyed several million dollars' worth of property. 
A few persons were killed before the state and national 
troops restored order. 

The year 1886 was noted for its labor troubles. The 
disturbances were most serious in St. Louis and Chi- 
cago. St. Louis was the center of a strike begun by the 
Knights of Labor against some of the railroads. As 
before, excitement and riot followed and troops were 
called out to aid in restoring order. Serious street rail- 
road strikes also occurred. 

558. The Chicago Anarchists (1886). The labor 
organizations of Chicago demanded that eight hours be 
counted as a day's labor. Many thousand laborers quit 
work. Public meetings were held and speeches made. 
At a meeting in Haymarket Square a speaker advised 
the strikers to use force. While he was being arrested 
by the police, an anarchist threw a dynamite bomb into 
their midst and killed or wounded several. The remain- 
ing policemen, however, dispersed the meeting. 

Laboring men as well as the general public denounced 
the anarchists, because of their dangerous teaching that 
all law and government should be destroyed. Some of 
the leaders of the riot in Chicago were hanged and 
others imprisoned. In New York City also anarchist 
leaders were arrested for exciting a riot. 

559. The Homestead Strike (1892). One of the 
signs of the coming panic of 1893 was the reduction of 
the wages of workmen in the iron mills at Homestead, 
Pennsylvania. The laborers declared a strike and the 
company hired private detectives to guard the non-union 
laborers who took the place of the strikers. The strik- 
ers armed themselves and killed a number of the guard. 
The governor called out the militia and restored order. 



442 A Neiv Industrial Era 

560. The Coal Strikes of 1900 and 1902. Following 
the example of other workingmen, the coal miners formed 
a national organization called the United Mine Workers 
of America. In 1900 more than one hundred thousand 
miners, working in the hard-coal mines of Pennsylvania, 
struck for an increase in wages. The contest was short 
because public opinion compelled the miners and mine 
owners to stop the strike by a compromise. 

The miners, however, were not entirely satisfied and 
struck again in May, 1902. Nearly all the anthracite 
miners in America quit work. The soft-coal miners 
refused to join the strike, but sent money to aid the 
strikers. The contest continued throughout the summer 
and into the fall. The price of coal more than doubled, 
and great harm was threatened. Public opinion again 
demanded that the strike be settled, but both miners 
and mine owners held out until President Roosevelt 
practically forced them to arbitrate. He appointed a 
number of leading men to examine the coal mines and 
hear the arguments of both sides. This commission 
made recommendations which the miners and mine 
owners finally accepted. 

GROWTH IN THE MEANS OF EDUCATION 

561. Centennials and Other Expositions. During 
this period inventions and discoveries were making the 
American people wiser. Even the unhappy disputes 
between labor unions and business companies were mak- 
ing the people think. But other influences were also 
aiding in making them more intelligent. 

The Declaration of Independence was honored by a 
World's Fair at Philadelphia (1876). Here many of the 
leading nations of the world erected buildings to exhibit 
their products. More than ten million people visited the 
Centennial Exposition, which was open from May till 
November. 



Growth in the Meatis of Education 



443 



But the greatest lesson which America gave to other 
nations, and to her own people, was the World's Colum- 
bian Exposition. It was held in Chicago (1893) to cele- 
brate the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery 
of America by Columbus. Leading foreign nations, as 
well as the various states, erected buildings of their own. 
The grounds — now Jackson Park — were larger and more 






-ujj^fflmi, 






J^V 



li, 



-nrn-r 



\% 



fp°?i 



From a photograph 



THE MANUFACTURES BUILDING AT THE WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION 

beautiful and the products richer and more numerous 
than those of any former World's Fair. No such collec- 
tions of agricultural products, no such exhibitions of 
machinery, and no such displays of electricity had ever 
been seen before. On " Chicago Day " alone more than 
seven hundred thousand people visited the Fair. 

In 1898 the Trans-Mississippi Exposition was opened 
in Omaha, to show to the world the marvelous progress 
of the states west of the Mississippi. The collection 
of products from the farms and from the mines — two 
departments in which this section excels the world — 
has seldom been surpassed. 

The Pan-American Exposition, to which all nations 
on the American Continent were invited, was held at 
Buffalo (1901). It was noted for its electrical display, 
and resulted in a friendlier feeling between the nations 



444 



A New Industrial Era 



taking part. We have already seen how, in various 
cities of the South, a number of expositions had been 
held to show the progress in that section. 

562. The Rapid Growth of Schools of Higher Learn- 
ing. What America had to show at her expositions 
would have been impossible had there not been great 
improvements in the means of education. These im- 
provements not only included the growth of the public 
schools of the various states, but particularly the very 
rapid increase of schools of higher learning. 

As early as 1862 Congress made large gifts of govern- 
ment land to encourage the study of farming and other 
,„..., j^ industries. Thus aided, m^ny 

states established agricultural 
colleges. 

Stimulated by the work of 
Horace Mann of Massachusetts, 
the states began to provide nor- 
mal schools for the education of 
teachers. Hardly a state can now 
be found which does not contain 
more than one school for this 
purpose. At the same time a 
number of states were gradually 
building up universities which, 
in the number of their students 
and teachers, rivaled the older 
colleges and universities. 

But the founding of schools of 
higher learning was not left to the states alone. Follow- 
ing the example of colonial times, the various religious 
denominations continued to establish colleges and uni- 
versities. There are now a number of such scIk^oIs in 
every state in the Union, and they are open to students 
without regard to religious views and without cost to 




HORACE MANN 

From a portrait painted by A. 
H. Bicknelt of Maiden, Massa- 
chusetts, from a daguerreotype 
in the possession of Mrs. Mann 



Growth in the Mentis of Education 445 

the state. In late years a large number of these schools 
have been richly endowed by generous men. Other 
colleges, universities, and scientific schools have also 
been founded by liberal-minded persons. 

The Troy Female Seminary (1821), now" called The 
Emma Willard School in honor of its founder, was the 
first school for the higher education of women. 

As late as fifty years ago the great majority of higher 
schools were closed to women ; now the great majority 
are open to them. During this time many flourishing 
colleges for women exclusively have been founded. 
One hundred years ago the college student studied 
mainly mathematics and languages, and had little or no 
choice of subjects. Now he studies almost any subject 
he wishes. Then no attention was given to training the 
body ; now, in school and college alike, gymnastics and 
athletic games have an important place. 

563. Education After School Days. Schools are for 
the young, but people need to learn all the time. To 
encourage study after school days, the Chautauqua Lit- 
erary and Scientific Circle was formed (1878). Thou- 
sands joined its ''circles" in various towns and cities, 
and followed its program of studies. Every summer a 
great school is held on the shores of Lake Chautauqua 
in western New York, and there one may study under 
learned teachers, hear famous lecturers, attend concerts, 
visit, and rest. Here, too, boys and girls have their 
clubs of various kinds. Other " Chautauquas " and sum- 
mer schools in all parts of the country are now helping 
old and young to study. 

The University Extension movement, introduced 
from England (1891), aims to encourage serious study by 
means of teachers who visit a town or city, and give 
lectures and conduct classes for review and discussion. 
A number of the colleges and universities have widened 



44^ The Beginnings of Expansion 

their work by sending out teachers to conduct such 
courses. The rapid increase of public libraries, sup- 
ported by taxation or by gifts, has done much for the 
education of the people. In some states and cities 
" traveling libraries " move from place to place to meet 
the wants of " study clubs." 

564. Books, Magazines, and Newspapers. The work 
of encouraging people to keep on learning has been 
aided by the wonderful increase in books and other pub- 
lications. Men are living who remember when books, 
magazines, and daily newspapers were scarce ; when the 
arrival of the daily and even weekly newspapers in the 
town mail was the signal for gathering crowds to hear 
them read. But newspapers are now so plentiful and 
cheap that all persons, the poor as well as the rich, may 
have them in their homes. 

When the Revolution began, there were only thirty- 
five or forty small papers printed in America, and not a 
daily among them. More than twenty thousand papers 
are now published, and some in the great cities print 
half a million copies every day in the year. 

Fifty years ago few illustrated magazines and papers 
were published. Now scores of them may be found 
whose pages are full of good reading by the best authors, 
and of beautiful pictures by the best artists. 

THE BEGINNINGS OF EXPANSION 

THE WAR WITH SPAIN 

565. Spanish and American Interests in Conflict. 

From the time of Columbus and John Cabot, Spain and 
England had been rivals in the race for colonial empire. 
At first, Spain was far ahead, for her daring adventurers 
had established themselves in Cuba and other West India 
islands and had brought most of South America beneath 
her sway nearly a century before our forefathers made 



The War With Spain 



447 



their first weak settlements at Jamestown and Plymotith. 
The conquest of the Philippine Islands also gave Spain 
an opening to the riches of the East Indies before the 
first English sailor doubled the Cape of Good Hope. 

But Spain thought only of her 
own profit and ruled her vast em- 
pire like a tyrant. Her colonies 
declined and English settlers occu- 
pied portions of North America 
once claimed by her. English 
enterprise wrested from her much 
of the trade of the East. 

When the English colonies in 
America became the United States ' 
they were still called upon to meet 
the jealousy of their old but feeble 
enemy. Spain was forced to give 
up the mouth of the Mississippi 
and to sell Florida. When, finally, 

1 . 1 • • TV/r • J WILLIAM MCKINLEY 

her great colonies m Mexico and ^^^^ ^ piwtograph by court- 
South America, driven by her bad «^->'' *''''''' "^ ^"''^""^ ^'"^ 
government, won their independence, it seemed that 
her power to cause the United States trouble was gone. 
But she still held Cuba and Porto Rico and governed 
them in the old tyrannical way. 

566. Causes of the War with Spain ; Spain's Treat- 
ment of Cuba. Cuba had always been governed by 
Spanish officeholders and soldiers. To pay these and 
meet other Spanish demands, the Cubans were ground 
down by taxation. Instead of making the island a 
home, most Spaniards returned to Spain after they had 
made fortunes. For these reasons the majority of the 
Cubans hated Spanish rule and several times, within the 
last fifty years, tried to throw off the Spanish yoke, but 
only succeeded in increasing Spanish oppression. 




448 



TJic Beginnings of Expansion 



In their desperation the Cubans revolted once more 
in 1895. Although Spain sent a large army to Cuba, and 
although she caused thousands of Cubans to starve 
to death and to die of disease by penning them up in 
towns, she could not break their spirit. The awful suffer- 
ings of the Cubans in their struggle for liberty aroused 
the deepest indignation and sympathy among the Amer- 
ican people. 

567. Danger to American Interests ; Spain's Refusal 
to Sell Cuba. Cuba is our near neighbor, and for more 

than half a cen- 
^Wi\ hM tury it had been 

felt that her con- 
trol by a foreign 
nation might be 
dangerous to our 
interests in time 
of war. Spain 
had not only re- 
• fused to sell Cuba 
to President Polk 
for one hundred 
million dollars, 











HOW THE CUBANS FOUGHT 



Lying in ambush for the advancitlg column of tite enemy \i\}X WaS IndiS"- 

nant because she believed that America was bound to 
possCvSS the island. This belief was partly due to the 
declaration in the "Ostend Manifesto " (§ 360). 

But our government was compelled to take notice of 
events in Cuba because Americans were engaged in busi- 
ness there and our trade with her amounted to several 
millions of dollars each year. During a long rebellion 
from 1868 to 1878, as well as during the later struggle, 
American property and trade were ruined. The United 
States, moved by the suffering of Cuba and by the loss 
of the property of American citizens, offered to try to 



The War With Spain 



449 




bring about peace. Spain rejected the offer. Finally, 

Spain recalled the cruel General Weyler and promised 

to make certain reforms, but 

the Cubans would accept noth- 
ing short of independence and 

the war went on. 

On the recommendation of 

President McKinley, Congress 

voted fifty thousand dollars to 

relieve the suffering Cubans. 

Thousands of dollars were also 

given by persons in all parts of 

the country, and members of 

the Red Cross Society, led by 

Clara Barton, hastened to Cuba 

to brave disease and death in 

trying to relieve distress. 

568. The Destruction of 

the ** Maine." The Spaniards 

were bitter against the Americans, for they believed 

that the Cubans were only holding out because they 

received sympathy and aid from this country. 

The United States sent the warship " Maine " to Cuba 

to watch over our interests. The whole nation was 

shocked by the news that the "Maine" had been blown 

up in Havana Harbor (February 15, 1898), and that over 

two hundred 
and sixty of 
her crew had 
.perished. 
■' Though the 
real author 
of the deed 

was not known, the Americans firmly believed it was 

the work of Spaniards. 

30 



CLARA BARTON 

From a photograph by Charles E. 
Smith, Evanston, Illinois 




THE "MAINE" ENTERING HAVANA HARBOR 



450 



The Beginnings of Rxpansjton 



After a few weeks, Congress voted fifty million 
dollars for military purposes, declared that the Cubans 
ought to be free, and authorized the President to employ 
the army and navy, if necessary, to force vSpain out of 
Cuba. Spain promptly gave our minister his passports 
and Congress declared that war existed (April 25, 1898). 

569. Military Preparations; Dewey at Manila. Con- 
gress immediately voted to borrow two hundred million 
dollars and to raise further money by means of a stamp 
tax. Two hundred and fifty thousand volunteers were 
called for, but many times that number offered their 



<S^ Tampa. 



Charleston 

aTAQQtb 



A TLA N TIC 



GULF OF 



*.. ''-vr'^ ¥-S<^f $^^^ OCEAN 



£:^:^S:N 



-;>' :-^os 




^^. 



v<> COST^l 




*.^.^ 



^S V >rN--E,z V y. I. A 




PORTO RICO AND CUBA 

Showing the importance of Porto Rico as a stopping point on the way to the 
Panama canal 

services. The forts along the Atlantic were strengthened 
and protected by mines. One portion of the navy pro- 
tected the seacoast cities, while another blockaded Cuba. 



The War With Spain 



451 



But before a decisive event occurred here, the most 
far-reaching event of the war took place in the Philip- 
pine Islands. Commodore 
George Dewey, commanding 
an American fleet in Chinese 
waters, was ordered to attack 
the Spanish fleet in the Phil- 
ippines. Before daylight, May 
I, 1898, Dewey sailed into 
Manila Bay, the chief harbor 
of the islands. In four hours 
he had completely destroyed 
the enemy's fleet of eleven 
vessels, silenced the shore bat- 
teries of Cavite, and had killed ) 
and wounded hundreds of the 
Spaniards without the loss of 
a single American. Dewey 
M'as soon after created ad- 
miral. 

Dewey blockaded the city of Manila and awaited the 
arrival of land troops before taking possession. This 
victory produced enthusiasm in America and excite- 
ment in Europe. It was America's first step into new 
relations with the whole world. 

570. Santiago Captured and Another Spanish Fleet 
Destroyed. In the meantime a Spanish fleet in the West 
Indies, under Admiral Cervera, had escaped the Ameri- 
can ships under Rear Admiral Sampson and Commodore 
Schley, and was not discovered until safely hidden in the 
Cuban harbor of Santiago. Although our ships kept watch 
day and night, it was feared that, by some means, Cervera's 
fleet might escape. To prevent this, six men were selected 
from many volunteers, to aid Ensign Hobson in his plan 
of sinking the coaling vessel "Merrimac" at the harbor's 




From a 
Frances \ 



GEORGE DEWEV 

hotograph taken in iqoo by 
'.Johnston, Washington, D.C. 



452 



TJie Beginnings of Expansioi 



/^ 



entrance. This daring deed was accomplished in spite 
of a terrific fire from the Spanish batteries. Hobson and 
his men were captured, but were kindly treated by the 
enemy in appreciation of their bravery. 

An army under General Shafter was hurrying to the 
capture of Santiago. This force was composed chiefly 
of regular soldiers, but included some volunteers, notably 
" Roosevelt's Rough Riders." The tropical climate, the 
heavy rains, and the dense forests caused our troops 
great suffering, but they pushed on, and, after severe 
fighting, stormed the Spanish entrenchments at El 
Caney and San Juan. Santiago was now doomed. 

^_ /F-^ _ . To avoid 

capture, Cerve- 
ra's ships, one 
after another, 
under a full 
head of steam, 
dashed out of 
the harbor and 
tried to escape 
(July 3, 1898). 
Every Ameri- 
can ship in 
sight gave 
chase. Every 
engine on 
every vessel 
was working 
its best to drive 
the vessel for- 
ward; dense 
clouds of black smoke poured from each smokestack ; 
the great guns shook the vessels and filled the air with 
a deafening roar. A Spanish vessel, torn by shot and 




From tbo pftlDtln,^ b^ VerMhobagin 
CHARGE OF THE ROUGH RIDERS AT SAN JUAN 



The War With Spai7i 



453 



shell, caught fire and ran for the shore ; a second ran up 
the white flag, but was found to be sinking; a third blew 
up. "Don't cheer, boys; the poor fellows are dying," 
said an American captain, 4 and not a cheer was heard. 




(:^:^^^=^ ^§>~'^Hr_ From a photograph bj Hftll 

THE BATTLESHIP "OREGON" 

Steamed from San Francisco to Key West in 68 days, and took part in the naval 
battle off Santiago 

In four hours the fight was over and Spain had lost 
six vessels, six hundred men in killed and wounded, 
and one thousand two hundred prisoners, while the 
Americans had but one man killed and three wounded, 
and suffered little damage to their vessels. 

In a few days the entire Spanish army in Santiago 
surrendered, and General Miles started to invade Porto 
Rico, but before he had overrun much of the island the 
war ceased. 

571. The Capture of Manila; Treaty of Peace.* As 
soon as General Merritt could collect an army on the 
Pacific Coast and transport it to the support of Admiral 
Dewey, Manila was forced to surrender (August 13th). 
In the Philippines, as in Cuba, the natives had revolted 
against the tyranny of Spain and aided the Americans 
in defeating the Spaniards. 

On the day before Manila fell, the French ambassador, 
acting for Spain, signed at Washington the first draft of a 



1 Constitution, Article II.. Sec 2. 



454 The Beginnings of Expansion 

treaty of peace. War ceased as soon as the news could 
reach our armies and fleets. From October to December. 
American and Spanish Peace Commissioners discussed 
at Paris the final terms. They agreed to the following: 

/. That Spain should give up all authority over 
Cuba, and transfer Porto Rico, Guam, an island in the 
Ladrones group, and the Philippines to the United States. 

2. That the United States pay Spain twenty million 
dollars. 

J. That the rights to be given to the inhabitants of 
these new possessions should be decided by Congress, 
with the exception that they should have religious free- 
dom. 

Many people in this country were opposed to taking 
possession of the Philippines without the consent of 
the inhabitants, who were then, under the leadership of 
Aguinaldo, demanding independence. But a larger 
number declared that if the United States should with- 
draw her authority from the islands the people would 
fall into a state of anarchy, and foreign nations would 
probably seize various portions. The treaty of peace 
was ratified early in 1899. 

572. The Results of the War. The following are 
the main results of the Spanish war : 

/. America comes into possession of colonies. Not only 
did the United States change her mind during the war 
with Spain and annex the island republic of Hawaii 
(see map, page 413) (§ 529), but she accepted as colonies 
the islands ceded by Spain. This action met with con- 
siderable opposition because it brought to the American 
people a new and difficult problem. Many believed that 
we should not undertake to govern millions of people 
living thousands of miles away, who belonged to a 
different race and who knew nothing of our system of 
government. 



The War With Spain 



455 



2. A permaiient increase in the cost of government. The 
war not only added several millions of dollars to our 
national debt in spite of " war taxes," but resulted in a 
permanent increase in the size of the army and navy, 
and in the number of civil officers. 

J. The expansion 



Balintang Channel 







'^ 



o 




j^ Ma Ilia 

ifanila Bat,^^-. (=•-■ ' 
Uatangas" 










>^ 



in American com- 
merce. Our trade 
with Cuba and Porto 
Rico has constantly 
increased, but with 
Asiatic countries 
the increase has 
been even greater. 
The old Asiatic 
trade, which once 
reached us b}'- way of 
Europe, now comes 
largely by way of 
the Pacific, the 
transcontinental 
railroads, and the 
Great Lakes. Large 
numbers of Ameri- 
cans have gone to 
the colonies to en- 
gage in business. 

^. A new field for 
American ideas and 
institutions. Already Cuba as well as our colonies have 
learned valuable lessons in good government. During 
the American occupation, under the command of Gov- 
ernor-General Leonard Wood, the Cubans were taught 
how to rid their chief city, Havana, of that dread disease, 
the yellow fever. Hundreds of American teachers have 



i> L 



Zamboang. 



■Ct7 




L El^ t^ B Ei, 
SEA 



THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 



45^^ The Beginnings of lixpansion 

gone to carry the blessings of the free public scIkjoI 
to the people of the colonies. 

5. The United States raised in the estimation of European 
nations. All European nations took a deep interest in 
the war. The majority of their people sympathized 
with Spain. Some thought that the United States made 
war to get possession of Cuba rather than to free Cuba 
from Spain. But when the United States withdrew 
from Cuba (1902) and left the island to be governed by 
its own people, Europeans were convinced of her good 
faith. They were surprised at the easy victory of the 
United States, and were convinced that she was able to 
take an important part in the affairs of nations. There 
are many proofs that the respect of other nations for 
this government has materially increased since the 
Spanish War. 

6. Another proof that the American Union is perfect 
and perpetual. Everybody rejoiced to see, what all had 
long believed, that ex-Confederates and their sons 
would respond to the nation's call to arms as quickly 
and enthusiastically as any other American citizens. 
Indeed, this war helped all sections, all classes, and all 
races to realize, as never before, what the American 
Union means. 

LATER POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS 

573. Rebellion in the Philippines (1899). The 

Philippine Islands contain about eight million people. 
The majority are classified as civilized and belong to 
the ^lalayan race. The natives of Luzon had been 
foremost in the rebellion against Spain, and had allied 
themselves with the Americans at the capture of Manila. 
America did not give them independence because they 
were not fit for it. The)'- attacked the Americans. Gen- 
eral Otis easily defeated theni. Campaignini;- in their 



Later Political Dci'clopnioits 



457 



dense tropical forests was very dangerous. When Gen- 
eral Funston captured Aguinaldo, their leader, the 
rebellion came to an end (1901). 

574. The Government of the Philippines. Early in 
1900 President McKinley, acting on the report of com- 
missioners whom he had sent to the Philippines, 
appointed another 
commission to set 
up a civil govern- . ^^ 

ment in the islands -'^X 
to take the place of ' 
the military rule ^ 
which had been in 
force. The presi- 
dent of the commis- 'tU^^ 
sion, Judge William ^^^' 
H. Taft, was made 
governor of the 
islands, with a sort 
of cabinet composed 
of the members of the commission. Civil government 
was set up in the provinces and towns where fighting 
had ceased. In the towns all male persons of a proper 
age who could use the English or Spanish language 
and who owned two hundred and fifty dollars worth 
of property or paid taxes amounting to fifteen dollars, 
were allowed to enjoy the right of voting. In 1907 
over 100,000 men cast their votes for members of the 
Assembly. 

The new government improved the business of the 
country. It improved public works and sanitary con- 
ditions and established courts of justice throughout the 
islands. A system of free public schools was also put in 
operation. In 1914 there were five hundred forty Amer- 
ican and more than nine thousand native teachers. 




A PHILIPPINE SCHOOL 



From a pbotogTftph 



45<^ t III' Ingiiinings of lixpa)i.<io)i 

575. An American Army in China (1900). In \.\\^ 
summer of 1900 the civilized w(jrld was shocked by the 
news that a secret society of Chinese, called Boxers, was 
trying to murder all foreigners in China. The leading 
nations immediately sent warships and armies to protect 
their citizens. General Chaffee hurried with an army 
from the Philippines. Troops from several nations 
fought their way to Pekin, where hundreds of foreigners, 
had taken refuge. The Boxers had surrounded them 
The American troops took a prominent part in the cap- 
ture of the Chinese capital. The Chinese had to put to 
death some of the Boxer leaders before the troops of the 
nations agreed to leave that country. The government 
was compelled to pay a vast sum of money for the loss 
of life and property of the foreigners. The United 
States gave $13,000,000, which was more than half of her 
share, back to China. China appreciated this act of 
generosity and out of gratitude has since been using 
this sum to send young men to America to be educated. 

576. The Campaign of 1900. The Presidential 
campaign resembled that of 1896 in that McKinley and 
Bryan again ran for President. Governor Theodore 
Roosevelt of New York was nominated for Vice-Pres- 
ident by the Republicans, and former Vice-President 
Stevenson by the Democrats. Both parties 'again held 
opposite views in regard to the free coinage of silver. 
They also took opposite positions in regard to our treat- 
ment of Porto Ricoand the Philippines. The Republicans 
endorsed what Congress and the President had done, 
while the Democrats declared it wrong to govern these 
countries without the consent of their people. Both 
parties called for the building of an Isthmian canal. 
The Prohibition and the Socialist parties also placed can- 
didates in the field. Many Republicans, known as "Anti- 
imperialists," refused to vote for McKinley, but several of 



Later Political Dcvclopincyits 



459 



the western states which voted for Bryan in 1896 now 
supported McKinley. The Republicans were trium- 
phant by a larger majority than in the previous campaign. 

577. The Assassination of 
President McKinley. In Sep- 
tember, 1901, soon after Presi- 
dent McKinley's second inaug- 
uration, he was invited to be a 
guest of the Pan-American Ex- 
position at Buffalo. 

After making an address, and 
while shaking hands with the 
thousands of men, women, and 
children who crowded to greet 
him, he was shot by an anarchist. 
Officers quickly seized the 
assassin, but it was too late. 
After a week of patient suffering, 
watched with painful anxiety 
by the whole people, William 
McKinley, our third martyr 
President, died (September 14th). 

The assassin was promptly 
tried by a jury, and was executed a few weeks later. 
The country demanded that Congress at once pass a 
law providing severe punishment for attacks against 
the life of the President and other high officers of the 
government. 

Upon the death of President McKinley, Theodore 
Roosevelt, the Vice-President, took the oath of otiice. 

578. Self-Government in Cuba. After order was 
restored in Cuba, a Constitution adopted, and a Presi- 
dent and Congress elected, the United States was ready 
to withdraw its authority from the island. On May 20 
1902, salutes were fired, the Stars and Stripes were 




THEODORE ROOSEVELT 

From a photograph by Pack Bros., 
Neiv York City 



4C)0 



The Bcgiinn)igs of lixpansion 




LEONARD WOOD 

Governor-General of Cuba 



lowered, and the flag of Cuba hoisted. General Wood 

and the American officers then bade President Palma of 

Cuba good-by and went aboard 
an American ship. The work 
of the United States was done, 
and Cuba became a self-govern- 
ing country. 

579. A New Kind of Terri- 
tory and a New Kind of Citizen. 
The relations ofthe United States 
to Porto Rico and the Philippines 
were not so easily settled. How 
should the United States treat 
the commerce of these new pos- 
sessions? What rights had their 
people? The Supreme Court 

decided, in effect, that the people of these islands were 

not citizens of the United States until declared so by 

Congress,! and that the United 

States had a right to place a 

tariff upon their goods coming 

to this country. 
580. The Isthmian Canal. 

The war with Spain, and espe- 
cially the long voyage of the 

"Oregon" (p. 453), made clear 

our need of a canal joining the 

Atlantic and PacijEic. Both the 

great parties favored such a 

canal. A treaty was signed with 

Great Britain. It was agreed 

that the United States should 

build and defend the canal. It was also agreed that tht 

canal vShould always be open to the nations of the world. 




-«:'^ 



COL. G. W. GOETHALS 

Chief Engineer, Panatna 
Canal 



lAmendments, Article XIV. 



Later Political Developments 



461 



Congress gave the President the power to build a 
canal across the Isthmus of Panama. If, however, he 
could not make favorable terms with Colombia he was 
authorized to build the canal by the Nicaragua route. 

After the republic of Colombia had refused to accept 









CARIBBEAN 

/a 

^<>'' MOSQUITO "^^ o o* .^^^^^^^^ 

•d^-^ <. GULF "V^;^-'^-*!".'!^" .„ 



5 £: ^ 



V' 







ofParita Tsi 

.\I,a5 Santos G f/ . 



PAN A MA 



PACIFIC OCEAN 




THE REPUBLIC OF PANAMA 

Showing the route of the Cajial 

a treaty permitting the United States to build the canal, 
the state of Panama — the part of Colombia most 
concerned in the canal — rebelled, set up an independent 
government, and offered the United States a very favor- 
able treaty. Secretary Hay accepted it and the Senate 
ratified the treaty (February, 1904). 

By this agreement the United States obtained control^ 
over a strip of territory five miles wide along each side 
of the canal, and promised to pay Panama ten million 
dollars immediately, and two hundred and fifty thousand 
dollars annually, beginning nine years after the work 
was finished. A French company which, long before, 
had begun work on the canal and abandoned it was 
to receive forty million dollars. 

^Constitution, Article IV., Sec. 3. 



462 



The Beginnings of llxpanswn 



In 191 3 work on the canal was finished. The open 
ing was celebrated in 191 5 by the Panama-Pacific Expo- 
sition at vSan Francisco. 

By means of this canal the United States is brought 
into closer touch with western South America, and the 
sea route to Asia greatly shortened. 
This enables the United States to 
play more perfectly its great part 
among the nations of the world. 
581. The Alaskan Boundary 
Dispute. As early as 1825 Ihc 
boundary line between Alaska and 
Canada was agreed upon by a treaty 
between Russia and Great Britain. 
Not until several years after the 
United States purchased Alaska did 
any question about the boundary 
arise. 
^, ^ „,. , The discovery of gold in the 

From a thoto/^raph by Ehot ■' *^ 

if Fry. London, taken when Klondike and the Yukou reijions 

Mr. Hay was U. t). Ambas- * 

sador to Great Britain made it ueccssary to locatc defi- 
nitely the line between Alaska and Canada. After a 
year or two of discussion it was agreed to leave the 
question to be decided by a commission of six men. In 
1903 this body, composed of three Americans, two 
Canadians, and an Englishman, met in London and, 
after several weeks of study and discussion, decided 
largely in favor of the United States. By this decision 
the United States gained two islands at the mouth of 
the Portland Canal, two important towns, Skagway and 
Dyea, and a continuous strip of land along the coast 
from the Portland Canal northward. 

582. The Louisiana Purchase Exposition. A great 
exposition was opened April 30, 1904, in vSt. Louis, Mis- 
souri. It celebrated the Louisiana Purchase (§298; and 




JOHN HAY 



Later Political Developments 



463 










V 

ALEXANDERl \:=^.~ TCN \ "'-v r ^ 






^"■^ 



/^ yi c I F r^'c 



MT EDGECUMBE^'.^V .j. ylr' ^'J^^iT) LJ\ ^ #„r Vl" ■'jH ' ) 

'-> .1^ \o fV^^~. ', \i \-ir C^ t\ IN PEAKS 

"^V^J/; S^^> ^3^^- -^ 




OCEAN 



cyO^Q, 






Boundary establhhed rgoj. 



DIXON EA TRANCE ^"t."'* ^'^^ 

<;^N0RTH L RuK Pt. *^ 

Cape Kntxrv^/-x 









o4^ okahWm 






THE DISPUTED ALASKAN BOUNDARY 



was therefore appropriately held in the largest city in 
the Purchase. In size, number, and splendor of its 
buildings, as well as in the amount of ground covered, 
it far exceeded even the World's Columbian Exposition 
at Chicago. In the number and interest of its exhibit.s 
it went beyond all expositions thus far held. 



464 



TJic Ilcginiiings of Expansion 



583. The Presidential Campaign of 1904. The Re- 
publican candidates were Theodore Roosevelt of New 
York and Charles W. Fairbanks of Indiana. The Demo- 
cratic candidates were Alton B. Parker of New York 

- (' >-x ■ 

•— ^:fe-, ^-x; 




" ■" ^ . '"^ •--— Fr m « pholocT«ph 

THE EDUCATIONAL BUILDING AT THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION 

and Henry G. Davis of West Virginia. Two very sig- 
nificant features of this election were the very great 
popular vote for Roosevelt, nearly two million more 
than for Parker, and the large increase in the Socialist 
vote. 

584. The Lewis and Clark Centennial, and Oriental 
Fair (1905). This event celebrated the one-hundredth 
anniversary of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, sent 
out by President Thomas Jefferson (j?30i). In a larger 
sense it invited all the world to come and witness the 
wonderful growth of the Oregon country since Lewis and 
Clark's exploration, which so materially strengthened 
the rights of the United States to her first Pacific posses- 
sion. Situated in Portland, Oregon, in full view of the 
Cascade Range and its snow-capped peaks, the exposition 
excelled in the beauty of its location. The large display 
by Asiatic nations was a notable feature of the fair. 



Later Political Developments 465 

585. The Admission of Oklahoma (1907); the James- 
town Exposition. The Indian Territory and Oklahoma 
Territory united to form one state called Oklahoma 
(§54i).'- This state had more than a million people when 
admitted, entering the Union with a larger population 
than any other of the states. 

The Jamestown Exposition was held at Norfolk, Vir- 
ginia (1907), in honor of the three-hundredth anniver- 
sary of the settlement of Jamestown (1607). Among the 
many notable things was a grand naval parade in Hamp- 
ton Roads, in which the nations of the world took part. 

586. Home Rule in Our Island Possessions. For 
all its dependencies the United States is working steadily 
toward an increasing measure of self-government. 
Since the opening of the first legislative assembly in 
the Philippines (1907) a representative form of govern- 
ment has been established in all our important outlying 
territories. 

587. The Movement for Universal Peace. For many 
years the Quakers had been holding peace meetings. 
Other persons finally joined with them, and now, every 
year a great peace conference is held, which is attended 
by some of the noblest and wisest people in America. 
The purpose of these meetings is to bring the people of 
this country to see the advantages to be gained by uni- 
versal peace. 

588. The Conservation of Natural Resources. One 
great cause of the continued prosperity of the United 
States has been the large number of rich acres covered 
for the most part with gigantic forests, and the great 
stores of coal, oil, and gas which are hidden away in the 
earth. Within the last few years both the state and 
national governments have been passing laws to pre- 
serve these natural resources from destruction. The 

^Constitution, Article IV., Sec. 3. 



466 



The Beginnings of Expansion 



Congress of Governors which first met in Washington at 
the call of President Roosevelt gave still more vigor to 
public opinion in favor of better care for these great 
gifts of nature. 

589. The Navy Goes Round the World (1908-1909). 
After a splendid display in Hampton Roads, Rear 
Admiral Evans started with sixteen war vessels around 

South America to our Pacific 
Coast cities. Rear Admiral 
Sperry then took command 
and the fleet visited the 
Hawaiian Islands, Australia. 
Japan, and some cities on 
the coast of China. Every 
city at which the fleet 
stopped gave officers and 
men a warm reception. 
From China the fleet turned 
toward home by way of the 
Suez Canal. This voyage 
deeply impressed the Asiatic 
and European nations. 

590. The Presidential 
Election of 1908. The 
Republicans nominated 
William H. Taft of Ohio, and 
the Democrats nominated 
for the third time William J. Bryan of Nebraska. The 
Socialist candidate was Eugene V. Debs, and the Pro- 
hibitionist, Eugene W. Chapin. Several other parties 
had candidates. The campaign was short, conducted 
with energy, and was remarkable for its high tone. The 
Republicans were victorious. Both the Socialists and 
Prohibitionists were greatly disappointed in the number 
of votes cast for their respective parties. 




WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT 

FroTn a photograph by Clinedinst , 

Washington. D. C 



Later Political DevclopDients 4O7 

591. The Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition. This 
exposition was held at Seattle, Washington, from June 
to October, 1909. It aimed to show the rest of the world 
what Washington and Alaska had done and could yet do. 
In many ways, the Palace of Fine Arts contained the 
greatest exhibit ever seen in any land. The exposition 
monument, eighty feet high, was covered with gold from 
Alaska and from Yukon. 

592. The Payne-Aldrich Tariff Bill (1909). Both the 
old parties made pledges to reform the tariff if elected. 
After President Taft took the chair he called Congress in 
extra session to frame a tariff bill. After great debates 
lasting several months, Congress passed, and the Presi- 
dent signed, the new tariff bill. During the debates it 
turned out that certain Democrats favored and certain 
Republicans opposed parts of the bill. A very important 
part of the bill provides for the appointment of a number 
of men to advise the President on tariff' questions. 

593. The Conquest of the Air (1909). We have 
already noted the invention of the "wireless telegraph" 
(§554). Its growth has been very rapid. The United 
States alone has more than one hundred shore stations 
and more than two thousand stations on her naval vessels 
for receiving and sending wireless telegrams. All the 
ocean steamships and a large number of the vessels on 
the Great Lakes are now fitted out with wireless instru- 
ments. The wireless telephone is coming into use and 
promises much for the future. 

Still more startling is the success with which men are 
navigating the air. The Wright brothers of Ohio took 
the lead in inventing airships heavier than the air and 
won the Government's prize of $30,000. Great improve- 
ments have been made. The airship can now go twice 
as fast as the fastest train. The dirigible balloon, 
lighter than air, is much slower and less noisy. 



468 The Beginnings of Jixpansion 

594. Polar Exploration (1909). This year witnessed 
the discovery of the North Pole by Commander Robert 
E. Peary. At about the same time the British explorer, 
Lieutenant Shackleton, determined the location of the 
vSouth I^Iagnetic Pole and reached a point within one 
hundred eleven miles of it. In 191 1, a Norwegian, Cap- 
tain Roald Amundsen, discovered the South Pole and 
raised his country's flag over the spot. 

595. Admission of New Mexico and Arizona (1912).* 
After a long wait, due to national polities, the territories 
of New Mexico and Arizona were admitted as states 
into the Union, making forty-eight in all. These were 
the last states carved out of territory obtained as a result 
of the ISIexican War (§394), and they were also the last 
to be admitted from that body of connected land known 
as the United States. 

For more than one hundred years the American 
people have been pushing west, and by their energy 
and thrift have been carving out new states for 
admission to the Union. The rich unoccupied lands 
and the untold mineral supplies helped the people 
through great business panics, but this storehouse is 
now nearly all in use. 

596. Democrats Win in 1912. The Presidential elec- 
tion of 191 2 was a most remarkable one. The Democrats 
were united, and nominated Governor Woodrow Wilson 
of New Jersey. The Republicans were divided, Presi- 
dent Taft leading the conservatives and ex-President 
Roosevelt the Progressives. The Socialists and the 
Prohibitionists nominated the same men as in 1908 (§590). 

The striking facts of the campaign were: /. Business 
went on undisturbed, — an unusual condition for a 
Presidential election. 2. The campaign was growing 
bitter until Roosevelt was wounded by a half-crazy man. 

1 Constitution, Article IV., Sec. 3. 



Later Political Developments 



469 



This restored the discussion to the real issues. 3. Three 

states were won for woman suffrage, making nine states 

in all. 4. Wilson won by an 

overwhelming majority in the 

Electoral College, while he 

received only a minority of 

the popular vote. 

597. Tariff Revision and 
Currency Reform in 1913- 
Immediately after his inaug- 
uration President Wilson called 
a special session^ of Congress. 
He took this occasion to renew 
an old custom. He addressed 
Congress in person, in order 
that he might better advocate 
measures in which he was inter- 
ested (note, p. 236). Before 
the close of 191 3 Congress had 
passed a new tariff cutting down this source of national 
income and a new currency bill whose purpose is to 
prevent panics. Twelve Federal Reserve banks were 
created which are administered by a commission located 
in Washington. The country was divided into twelve 
districts, each containing a Federal Reserve city .2 

598. The Sixteenth and Seventeenth Amendments. 
The year 191 3 was marked by the adoption of two con- 
stitutional amendments: /. Congress was given power 
to lay and collect an income tax. 2. The election of a 
United States senator by state legislatures was changed 
to an election by the people of his state. This made the 
election of senators more democratic. (Article XVH., 
Amendments.) 

1 Constitution, Article II., Sec. 3. 

2 The cities are Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Cleveland. Richmond, Atlanta, 
Chicago, St. Louis, Minneapolis, Kansas City, Dallas, and San Francisco. 




WOODROW WILSON 



470 i f^^ In-ginnings of lixpa)ision 

599. New Political Methods. Men in the West and 
South had been agitating the question of the people 
taking a more decided part in politics. 7. By the direct 
primary election. In this case voters cast their ballots for 
men they think best fitted for office. Those winning a 
majority are entitled to have their names placed on the 
ballot and to be voted for on election day. This aimed 
to do away with nominating conventions. 2. By tJie 
initiative, referendum, and recall. If a given number of 
people petition the legislature of the state for a law, a 
bill must be sent to the people for approval or disap- 
proval. If the legislature passes a law, and the people 
oppose it, and a required number sign a petition against 
it, the law must be submitted to popular vote. The first 
method is called the Initiative and the second the 
Referendum. The Recall is a method by which 
voters may make a man give up the office to which 
he was elected, j. By the covn)iissio7i form of governvicni 
for cities. This plan reduces the city government 
from many elective officers to a few who are held 
responsible for its management. These men may 
employ a "city manager" who spends all his time 
looking after city affairs. ^. By zvovian suffrage. Just 
as these new methods of government found favor in 
the more progressive West, so, too, woman suffrage 
won its first and great victories in the West. As 
early as 1869 Wyoming voted for woman suffrage, 
but no more states followed until in 1893, Colorado gave 
women the right to vote. Idaho and Utah were the next 
to fall in line (1896), and between 1910 and 1914 the 
movement gained great headway, seven states voting 
for it, and one state, Illinois, gave women partial suffrage. 
The friends of woman suffrage were greatly elated over 
these victories. 



Recent JiVt'jits 471 

RECENT EVENTS 

600. Relations with Mexico (1914.1915), Ever since 
the Civil War ()^502) the people of the United States 
have shown a friendly interest in Mexico. INIany of 
them have gone there to live. Diaz, who had held the 
Presidency for more than thirty years, was finally driven 
out of office by Madero. For a time the lives of Ameri- 
cans and other foreiorn residents were in danofer. 

Madero, after a few months in the President's office, 
was murdered. Huerta, his successor, was suspected of 
agreeing to it. Our government refused to recognize 
Huerta as President. This resulted in great bitterness 
toward the United States on the part of Pluerta's follow- 
ers. After our government had waited more than a 
year, some of Huerta's men insulted our flag. President 
Wilson ordered our troops to occupy Vera Cruz (§393) 
to enforce respect for the American flag. Huerta was 
compelled by Mexican armies, under Carranza and Villa, 
to flee from the country. The United States forces soon 
withdrew from Mexico. Fighting between the various 
factions still went on. 

601: Panicky Conditions Improve (1914-1915). Busi- 
ness conditions in 1914 showed two interesting phases: 
(/) the President asserted that there was no cause for a 
panic except the belief in the minds of many people 
that it could not be avoided; {2) certain business men, 
hard hit by the lowering of the tariff (§597), declared 
that the business of the country was being rapidly 
injured. But record-breaking crops and the Federal 
Reserve banks had just restored confidence when sud- 
denly the chief European nations were plunged into war. 

602. The United States a Neutral (1914-1915). Late 
in July, 1 9 14, the greatest war in the world's history 
broke upon Europe. The leading nations were swept 
into the great struggle, involving their colonies and 



472 TJic Bcgin?i7)i<^s of Hxpansion 

dependencies in all parts of the world. Millions of men 
were called lo face each other on the battle field. Japan 
joined forces with the Allies, England, France, Rnssia, 
and Serbia. Turkey and Bulgaria, after some hesitation, 
joined Germany and Austria. Later, after long negotia- 
tions with Austria-Hungary, Italy declared war and at 
once led her armies across the border in an attack on 
her ancient enemy, Austria. The United States declared 
its neutrality (§286). 

In America the cost of food and other products in- 
creased and the cotton market was hard hit. The cotton 
growers were aided by a "cotton loan" of $150,000,000 
.subscribed by the banks of the country. Congress was 
compelled to levy a "war tax" of over $100,000,000, to 
add to the nation's income which the new tariff (^597) 
had cut down. 

After the first months of the war, prices became more 
nearly normal. Vast quantities of foodstuffs and prod- 
ucts were bought by the agents of the warring nations. 
Foreign peoples had loaned us great sums of money. 
We now paid them back with our wheat, meat, and 
munitions of war. This gave us a more solid financial 
basis than ever before. 

603. How America Answered the Call for Help. 
Most people in America trace their ancestors to one or 
the other of the nations at war. Hence their sympath}' 
went out to the land they loved, and they hoped and 
prayed for its victory. 

Hardly had the war begun before a cry for help came 
from Belgium, Overrun by the Germans, thousands of 
her old men, women, and children had their homes 
destroyed and were starving. Millions of dollars and 
ships loaded with food and clothing were sent to them. 
Soon the cry came from the Poles; and later the Arme- 
nians, driven from home and their families massacred, 



Recent Events 473 

sent their pitiful appeals. Again Americans responded 
generously. 

Thousands of doctors, Red Cross nurses, ambulance 
drivers, and Y. M. C. A. men hastened to the aid of the 
distressed nations. In no other conflict have the victims 
of warfare suffered from such awful cruelty. 

604. Other Measures of Wilson's Administration. 
/. One of the first acts of Congress, after Wilson became 
President, was to pass a graded income tax. Persons 
were to pay a tax on all money they received above 
$3,000 per year, if single, and above $4,000, if married. 
2. A "good roads" act was passed by which the govern- 
ment gives the states a dollar for every dollar spent by 
them in making good roads (§ 332). This act has produced 
a most wonderful effect in helping states make good 
roads throughout the nation, j. Congress passed a law 
preventing children from working in factories and in 
other places when they ought to be in school. 4.. Large 
sums of money were voted to agricultural colleges to 
enable them to demonstrate to the farmer the best 
methods of production. 5. Congress went farther and 
gave money to encourage the teaching of trades and 
occupations in the public schools. 

605. The Presidential Campaign of 1916. The first 
great question was: What will the Progressive party do? 
The Republicans nominated Justice Hughes of the 
Supreme Court, and the majority of the Progressive 
leaders accepted him and worked for his election. The 
Democrats renominated Wilson. The campaign cen- 
tered around a more vigorous foreign policy and the 
Adamson law, passed by Congress to meet demands of 
railroad laborers for more pay. One very taking cam- 
paign cry of Democrats was: "He kept us out of war." 

606. The Results of the Struggle. Wilson won by a 
large popular vote, but the electoral vote was very close. 



474 ^'^'^ Bcgiiiiiiiigs of Expansion 

California finally settled the question by a few thousand 
votes for Wilson, while it gave a Republican majority 
of nearly 300,000 for Johnson for United States senator. 
Among other unusual results of the election was almost 
a tie in the House of Representatives; the carrying of 
New York, Indiana, and Illinois by great majorities for 
Hughes, and the state of Kansas for Wilson. The 
Socialist Labor vote was much reduced, while the Pro- 
hibitionists, led by Hanly, greatly increased their vote 
compared with 1912. Four states had laws favoring 
prohibition. 

607. A Rising Tide of Temperance Sentiment. For 
a time the temperance sentiment gained little headway. 
But just before and during the World War it went for- 
ward very rapidly. Congress prohibited liquor from 
going into dry states and did away with it in the Dis- 
trict of Columbia. War time prohibition was follov.-ed 
by prohibition through constitutional amendment. This 
went into effect on January 16, 1920, one year after the 
amendment was ratified. 

608. The Difficulty in Mexico Grows (1915-1917). 
Carranza and Villa quarreled. Carranza had control of 
the government, and President Wilson looked on him as 
having rightful authority to rule Mexico. Villa in great 
anger crossed the boundary and murdered American 
citizens. President Wilson at once ordered troops to 
the border under the command of Major-General Funston. 
A force led by General Pershing crossed into Mexico, 
with Carranza's consent, to capture Villa. But he escaped 
to the mountains. Early in 191 7, as the troops were 
coming out of Mexico, General Funston died suddenly 
at San Antonio, Texas. 

609. America Protects Herself Further (I9i7)> For 
many years the United States had been trying to buy 
the Danish West Indies to prevent their falling into the 



Recent Events 475 

hands of European nations. During the World War we 
bought them for $25,000,000. 

610. The United States Goes into the European 

War (April 6, 1917). In the second year of the European 
struggle the Allies made great demands on us for farm 
products and for war supplies. Germany resented our 
sending war vSupplies to Europe. To stop this trade she 
sent her submarines^ to prowl around the English 
coasts. They sank a number of ships carrying Ameri- 
can passengers. President Wilson protested and Ger- 
man)^ agreed to spare Americans. 

But the blockade of Germany that had been estab- 
lished by England grew tighter, and early in 191 7 
Germany gave notice that vShe would wage a furious 
submarine war against England until she destroyed her 
ships, starved her people, and forced her to make 
peace. American merchant ships carrying our exports 
were to be permitted to go to one small port in Great 
Britain. Thus Germany not only threatened the com- 
merce of the world but violated her pledge to the United 
States. President Wilson protested. Other ships were 
sunk and more American citizens went down. Congress 
was called in extra session, declared that war existed 
between us and Germany (April 6), and voted $7,000, 
000,000 for carrying on the war. 

611. Americans and the World War. April 6 brought 
a test for many Americans of foreign birth and parent- 
age. The land of their adoption was going to war 
against the old country. But they saw the right as true 
Americans and gave their loyalty and support to the 
government. That day flags were flung to the breeze. 

iThe submarine, or undersea boat, was the invention of J. P. Holland, Irish born, 
but living in America. His ambition was to make a boat that could destroy the English 
navy. He tried again and again. Finally he constructed one, the "Holland," fifty feet 
long, containing one torpedo tube. This boat could rise to the surface of the water and 
sink again in five seconds. All the leading nations in this war had scores of submarines. 
The "Deutschland" made two trips from Germany to the United States and back again 
in safety, although many English ships were watching for her. 



476 Die Beginniyigs of lixpansion 

The recruiting officer was seen on every college campus, 
in every city, and in almost every town in America. 
Soldiers already drilled were sent to guard important 
places. Immediately the women answered the call of 
patriotism. The Red Cross summoned them to its aid- 
Men of all occupations were mobilized, or put in a 
state of readiness, some to do one thing and some 
another, in preparing the nation for the conflict. A 
most important effort was made to arouse the country 
to the need of "doubling the crops" in order to supply 
our allies as well as ourselves with food. 

612. Commissioners Arrive from France and England. 
Soon after we entered the war against Germany, France 
sent to America General Joffre, the hero of the Battle of 
the Marne, and Minister of Justice Viviani. England 
sent the distinguished Secretary of Foreign Affairs 
Arthur J. Balfour. These men came to talk with Presi- 
dent Wilson and his cabinet about the best way for 
America to get into the war. They were received with 
open arms. 

A part of the meaning of this event lies in the fact 
that France in our Revolution sent over Lafayette, 
De Kalb, and Rochambeau (§220). They came to aid 
Washington in winning our independence. America 
went to the aid of France and the world in the war for 
democracy. Our people greeted Balfour none the less 
heartily because Great Britain in two wars had been our 
enemy, for they did not forget that we owed something 
to Great Britain's powerful navy. A bit later came men 
from Russia and Italy. They, too, were welcomed with 
great enthusiasm. 

613. How the Government Raised Money. Congress 
voted billions fur the war (§609), and before the war 
ended it voted billions more. This money had to 
come from the people in two ways: by taxing and by 



Recent Events 477 

borrowing. In the Civil War taxes came mainly from 
the tariff, but now they came mainly from the income 
tax (§604). 

The income tax was changed to require incomes as 
low as $1,000 per year to be taxed. An extra tax had 
to be paid for incomes over $6,000. If a man's income 
was $150,000 he paid about one-third to the government. 
If his income was $1,000,000 he paid over half of it. 
Firms and corporations and professional men had to pay 
a heavy tax on "excess profits," profits they made in 
their business because of the war. Everything that 
promised money was taxed. But even these sums were 
not nearly enough. 

In paying taxes the people get nothing from the gov- 
ernment directly. But when the government borrows 
money it pays interest, and after a time it gives back 
the principal. Altogether the government called for 
five different loans. These were called Liberty Loans; 
and the fifth, which was issued several months after the 
end of the war, was called the Victory Liberty Loan. 
Bonds were sold as low as $50 in order that the poor as 
well as the rich might help win the war. But the most 
democratic of all loans were the War Savings Stamps and 
Thrift Stamps. 

It is estimated that the war cost the United States 
over $40,000,000,000. Ten billions of this sum were 
loaned to our allies. Much of this came back to us 
through the purchase of wheat, corn, meat, potatoes, and 
other supplies. 

614. How America Built Ships. America was not 
ready for war. Since the Civil War we had not had 
many merchant ships. Our navy, too, was small com- 
pared with England's. We had to build ships almost 
without number: not only did we have to add to our 
navy, we also needed ships for carrying food, munitions, 



478 



riw Beginnings of J-.xpa)ision 



and soldiers. We gained a bit by seizing the r;erni;iii 
merchant ships lying in our harbor. 

Thousands of carpenters and mechanics were gathered 
into our shipyards. New ship-building plants of gigan- 
tic size were located along our Pacific, Gulf, and Atlantic 
coasts. We built both wooden and iron ships: transports, 
submarines, submarine chasers, mine-sweepers, battle 
cruisers, super-dreadnaughts, and various other kinds. 
As soon as a ship was ready it was sent to the post of 
danger. Thousands upon thousands of young men . 
enlisted and were put in training for service at sea. By 
the time the war closed the navy had increased from 
56,000 to 600,000. 

Our navy joined hands with the navy of Great Britain. 
Great credit is due them both for keeping Germany so 

tightly blockaded. When 
the war ended Germany was 
face to face with starvation. 
It was the navy, too, that 
almost completely checked 
the submarine danger. 

615. Preparing an Army. 
Preparing an army was a 
gigantic task. Fortunately 
we had made a beginning 
in training officers, and now- 
great numbers went to offi- 
cers' training camps to fit 
themselves for their task. 
The Regular Army and the 
National Guard were soon 
ready. These branches were 
increased by men enlisting. A part of them were sent 
to France under General Pershing and were received 
with wildest enthusiasm. Men and women cried fur 




MAJOR-GENrRAI. JOHN J. PERSHING 

From a photograph by Clinedinst, 

Washington, D.C. 



Recent JiT'eiits 479 

very joy when they saw the Stars and Stripes floating 
over the long lines of khaki-clad warriors. They paid a 
visit to the tomb of Lafayette, where they stood with 
uncovered heads, as if to say: "Lafayette, we are here!" 

A selective draft law was passed summoning over 
10,000,000 men between the ages of 21 and 31 to get 
ready for war. Some men were found physically unfit 
for war ; some had families to - support ; others had 
parents depending on them ; and others were working 
where it counted for winning the war. These were 
left at home. The rest of the able-bodied men were sent 
to the different training camps throughout the country. 
These camps had to be built, although lumber was hard 
to get and labor hard to find. A camp looked like a 
little city of frame houses. Before the war was over, all 
other men between the ages of 18 and 45 were called. 

616. Airplane, Submarine, and Tank. For the first 
time in any war, the airplane, the submarine and the 
tank became deciding factors. Much progress had been 
made with these great inventions before America went 
into the war. When Congress voted $640,000,000 for 
making airships and training aviators we had made a 
beginning. Before the war was over we had given more 
than $1,000,000,000 for airplanes. But airplanes had to 
be built and aviators had to learn to fly. And before 
airplanes could be made, machines had to be created to 
make them. 

The government had to establish training schools at 
colleges and universities where, for four months, the 
boys studied books bearing on flying. Then they went 
to training camps in various parts of the country for 
practice in flying, and then to Europe. 

Thousands upon thousands of mechanics were taken 
to these camps for repairing machines alone. Aviators 
from the battlefields of Europe came to teach the men 



480 The Bigmnings of Expansion 

how to fly and fig^lit. France and England freely gave 
us their secrets of manufacture, and great American 
factories put their secrets at the government's service. 
A few of the most skillful engineers in the world gath- 
ered in Washington and worked out a motor for the 
airships. They called it the Liberty motor. Within a 
few months America had begun the creation of a vast 
air fleet. But we spent too much time in experimenting. 
Before we had built many planes the war was over, but 
our fliers had used the planes of other nations and won 
immortal fame.^ 

But America was more prompt with her submarines. 
She built numbers of undersea boats. They guarded 
our coasts or went to Europe to aid in the work there. 

The English army made use of the tank before we 
entered the war. These great lumbering, tractor-like 
machines served to break down the wire entanglements 
of the Germans and to charge upon the enemy. Hun- 
dreds of these tanks were sent to France. 

The depth bomb and poison gas should be added to 
the list of new death-dealing instruments. Although by 
an agreement of nations the use of poison gas in war 
had been prohibited, in spite of this fact the Germans 
began to use it. 

617. How America Rushed Troops to Europe. 
America had put nearly 500,000 men in Europe during 
the first year of the war. Suddenly France sent a "last 
call for help." But where were the ships? America 
used every ship she had, including the German ships in 
her harbors; we took over the Dutch fleet, but needed 
more; England loaned us great numbers of her ships. 
We were able, by straining every nerve, to rush 200,000 
men per month to France in the summer of 191 8. They 

> A. large number of our boys were given medals for their bravery. One of the 
boldest men who sailed the air was Uuentin Roosevelt, son of ex-President Roosevelt.* 
He lost his life while fighting iiisitle the German lines. 



Recent Events 481 

reached the Front just in time to help check the Germans 
in their second triumphal march to the Marne on the 
road to Paris. 

618. How the Americans Fought. At first our men 
were put in the trenches with French and British 
soldiers. They learned much from these veterans. 
Very soon, General Foch, a great Frenchman who had 
been given command over the forces of all the Allies, 
saw that the Americans could fight alone. Then was 
formed the great American army under General Persh- 
ing's command. 

For four long years the result had been in doubt. 
Russia had broken down. Germany was now bringing 
her soldiers from the east to the western Front. They 
had driven back the Allies again to the Marne River. 
The Americans came just in time. In June the French 
and Americans checked the Germans. The American 
marines won new glory at Chateau Thierry and Belleau 
Wood. 

619. Decisive Events. On July 18, the Allied armies 
delivered a mighty counter-blow from the Swiss border 
to the North Sea. Back, back they pressed the Ger- 
mans toward their own country. The Americans were 
fresh, young, vigorous, and enthusiastic. They took 
town and city. Nothing seemed able to stop them. 
They were now approaching the Rhine. Word had 
already come that Bulgaria had quit fighting and that 
the Italians were smashing the Austrians. To fill Ger- 
many's cup of .woe, news came that the Turks had sur- 
rendered to the English. 

The German people were almost starving, thanks to 
the blockade (§610). The Kaiser gave up his throne 
and took refuge in Holland. Other kings in Germany 
gave up their power. The leaders of the German army 
agreed to an armistice with General Foch (Nov. 1 1, 191 8). 



4^2 The Beginnings of Jixpansion 

This armistice simply gave the terms on which the 
Allies would stop fighting while their great leaders were 
drawing up the treaty of peace. 

620. The Nation Offers Life and Wealth. Not only 
did we have millions of men on the sea and in France 
but millions more to send. But the war came to an end 
too soon to suit many. Great was the disappointment 
of those in France who did not get to Germany! Great, 
too, was the disappointment of those who did not even 
get to France ! 

In other wars the men who stayed at home were per- 
mitted to make money unhindered. Not so now. The 
government not only taxed a man's business, but decided 
what he was to receive for the articles he had to sell. 
One important exception was cotton. It rose from eight 
to thirty-five cents per pound! 

621. What the Government Did with Industry. The 
government took control of many kinds of business in 
order to win the war. After long- debates Congress 
passed the bill to put the control of food in the hands of 
the government. This would hold prices down and 
keep food moving so that neither we nor our allies 
should suffer. Congress put great power in the hands 
of the President. He named Herbert C. Hoover to take 
charge of feeding the nation. Before we went into the 
war Hoover had shown great wisdom in carrying food 
to the Belgians. Pretty soon he had the homes, hotels, 
and all eating places pledging themselves to meatless 
and wheatless days, so that we might send more food to 
Europe. When the fighting came to an end he had to 
send food to Germany. 

To carry food quickly and get more soldiers to the 
coast rapidly. Secretary McAdoo was given charge of 
the railroads. He joined railroads, cut out useless 
trains, and raised passenger, freight, and express rates 



Recent hvents 483 

Yet the roads ran behind in expenses several millions 
of dollars. 

Secretary Burleson was given charge of the telegraph 
lines and the telephones. 

The coal industry was turned over to Harry A. Gar- 
field. In spite of all he could do there came near being 
a coal famine. 

622. The Liquor Traffic and Conservation. Closely 
connected with the food-control bill was the question of 
prohibition. Congress had already prohibited the manu- 
facture and sale of strong drink during the war and the 
President had ordered that beer and wine should con- 
tain no more than 2yi per cent of alcohol. Congress was 
not stopped by these measures, but passed the Shephard 
Prohibition Amendment to the Constitution (191 7). It 
had to be ratified by three-fourths of the states to become 
a part of the Constitution (Art. V). Mississippi was the 
first state to ratify this amendment (January, 191 8), and 
Nebraska the thirty-sixth. Only three states failed to 
ratify it. Seldom had an amendment been so quickly 
passed (Jan. 16, 1919). Itwentinto effect in January, 1920. 

623. War Gardens and Farming. During the war 
thousands upon thousands of "war gardens" were begun 
in the United States and other countries. There was 
scarcely a family, a school, or an orphans' home that 
did not raise quantities of vegetables. This not only 
helped the poor but taught lessons of industry and thrift. 

The young folks in the higher schools and colleges 
were mobilized to help the farmers. School terms were 
made shorter to give students a better chance to work 
on the farms. Credit sometimes was allowed for work 
done and reported on. Thousands of American farmers 
learned, for the first time, what valuable help school 
boys and girls can give. What a blessing both to farm 
ers and to students if this custom could be kept up! 



484 The Bigjunings of Expansion 

624. Moral and Religious Forces Help Win the War. 

How to keep the s[)iiil of the soldiers ii[) to a lii^rh pitcli 
was a hard [)i-ol)lcm. Several millions of v()iin<^ men 
were snddenly taken away from homes and friends, 
thrown into trainin*^ eamps and then sent to faee death 
overseas in a strange land in a way to try men's souls. 

When these men were not on duty the government 
turned them over to the Young Men's and the Young 
Women's Christian Associations, the Knights of Colum- 
bus, the Salvation Army, and the Hebrew Welfare Asso- 
ciation. These bodies tried to keep the men fit. They 
furnished lectures and entertainments. They had con- 
certs, motion pictures, baseball, football, wrestling, and 
boxing bouts. 

Some of these organizations conducted canteens where 
the boys found writing materials, sweets, warm drinks, 
and many other things dear to the heart of a soldier. 
Thousands of men and women volunteered to work in 
the canteens and to carry supplies as near the firing line 
as possible. Different churches sent hundreds of their 
ministers to be chaplains in the army. The government 
and the officers of the army have given splendid aid in 
promoting purity and sobriety among our soldiers. In 
no other war has so much been done for the betterment 
of the army. 

625. Keeping at It. Millions of dollars were cheer- 
fully given by the people for the support of these 
organizations. Each state had its war board and many 
cities their committees of defense. When Germany sur- 
rendered, the Y. M. C. A. in particular began a great 
educational campaign for the soldiers left in Europe. 

Before this time classes had been formed in camps 
and abroad for soldiers who could not speak English, 
But now scores of teachers were sent over and classes in 
many subiects were planned. This war, like the Civil 



Recent livcnts 485 

War, opened the eyes of thousands of young men to the 
advantages of an education. The colleges at home 
offered courses to attract soldiers. 

626. The Red Cross and the Medical Service. Next 
to the religious bodies stood the Red Cross (§567). All 
over the nation women formed groups to make bandages 
for the wounded and to knit sweaters, socks, and helmets 
for the soldiers in the trenches. All this material was 
sent to the Red Cross to be given to the boys. Thou- 
sands of young women enlisted under its banner of 
mercy. Every nation at war had its Red Cross, but 
America sent its nurses to nearly every battlefield and 
hospital of the war. 

When the Red Cross called for millions of dollars to 
aid its work, our people gave millions more than were 
asked. The nurses sometimes lost their lives while 
waiting on our boys close up to the firing line. Some- 
times, too, they performed the sad duty of writing the 
last letter home to mother, wife, or sweetheart. 

From every town and countryside the physicians were 
among the first to answer their country's call. Not only 
doctors between the ages of 21 and 31, but those with 
many years' experience, especially surgeons, enlisted 
promptly. They willingly gave their best efforts to a 
work which taxed their strength and endurance to the 
utmost. They often had no rest for days at a time. 
Exhaustion, exposure, and the shells of battle cost many 
doctors' lives. Thanks to their skill, for the first time 
in a great war, the number dying from disease was less 
than the number killed. Their work in saving the 
lives of our boys was only a bit less than a miracle. 

627. The Religious Meaning of the War. This war 
stirred the deepest religious sentiments. The churches 
responded. At their services prayers were offered for 
the boj'S at home and abroad. Patriotic sermons were 



486 The Bcginmngs of Expansion 

preached. Nearly every church in America dedicated 
a service flag with a star for each member in war work. 
■Gold stars were added for those who lost their lives. 

The war taught the churches the need of getting 
together. Boys came back from the trenches and told 
how simple and how deep were the religious beliefs of 
the soldier; how Protestant, Catholic, and Jew helped 
each other in their last hours. The churches were 
deeply touched and took steps for greater cooperation. 

They also learned from the government how to carry 
on great campaigns for raising millions of dollars. 
Many of the church organizations planned world-wide 
campaigns for large sums of money. They propose to 
vspend this in part in helping rebuild the homes and 
churches in the districts laid waste by war. 

628. Woman's War Work and Woman Suffrage. 
The war called men to arms. Women had to take their 
places. They entered almost every occupation, even 
the most difficult and dangerous. They did so well that 
thousands who had opposed their employment now 
favored it. 

For over half a century woman's rights have been a 
bone of contention. Great progress has been made. 
Woman proved her physical ability by taking man's 
place at home in this war. 

We have seen the gains already made by the suffrage 
people (§ 599). Perhaps the most significant was in New 
York (191 7), when they carried the state for suffrage 
by almost 100,000 votes. Just forty years to a day after 
it was first introduced (Jan. 10, 191S), the House of Rep- 
resentatives passed the Anthony Amendment, named 
in honor of vSusan B. Anthony, among the first to 
champion woman's cause. The Senate was a bit slow, 
but finally acted favorably (191 9). Its ratification by the 
states (1920) gave women the right to vote. 



Rixcnt Events 487 

629. President Wilson Speaks to Congress. Pres- 
ident Wilson spoke to Congress, early in the year 191 8, 
on the terms of peace. Senators and representatives 
were in their seats. Ministers and their wives from 
foreign nations filled the diplomatic gallery. The cabi- 
net and the Supreme Court were there. The public 
crowded the galleries set apart for it, and standing room 
was at a premium. 

A great hush fell upon the audience as President 
Wilson began to read. It was a message, not for 
America alone, but for the peoples of the whole world. 
They had been listening for such a message from the 
Great Republic and now it came. It breathed hope to 
struggling people everywhere. It proclaimed equality 
and promised justice to the weak as well as to the 
strong. It pledged to this end the wealth of the nation, 
the lives of its people, and its sacred honor. This mes- 
sage has been called the Magna Charta of the world. 

630. Signing the Armistice. The Germans saw the 
way things were going and asked for an armistice. 
This meant the end of fighting after the terms were 
signed. When their leaders came to French territory, 
they had to be blindfolded. General Foch received 
them in his car. They signed the armistice withoul, 
debate. Again they were blindfolded and returned tc 
Germany. 

By this armistice the Germans agreed to march their 
army across the Rhine and disband it ; to give up their 
fleet of warships, including submarines; to turn over a 
large number of guns and airplanes, locomotives, and 
freight cars. They were compelled to permit the Allied 
armies to occupy German soil along the Rhine. 

631. Getting Ready for the Treaty of Peace. Could 
the Allies make a peace that would "make the world 
safe for democracy "? It was a hard question. It meant 



488 The Beginnings of I ix pans ion 

that there must be no more "world wars"; that nations 
now hating each other must live in harmony; that here- 
after large nations shall not crush out small nations. 

The Allies sent their wise men to Versailles. Presi- 
dent Wilson headed the American delegation. Never 
before had an American President crossed the Atlantic 
while in office! Besides the delegates, he took with him 
a large number of men for helpers. These men were 
to study the conditions of the countries, their bounda- 
ries, their history, and what the people now wished. 

The steamer "George Washington," as she sailed out 
of Hoboken, was given a salute. She was well guarded 
by the battleship "Pennsylvania" and five destroyers. 
Day by day the wireless (§593) brought news of her 
progress. The French received the President's party at 
Brest with the wildest enthusiasm. After a few days in 
France, President Wilson went to England. He was 
received by the King and Queen, and was dined by 
other famous persons. He then journeyed to the home 
of his ancestors. After returning to France for a time, 
he visited Italy, saw the King, the Pope, and other dis- 
tinguished persons. 

632. Making and Signing the Treaty. The first 
work of the peace conference was to establish a League 
of Nations to keep the peace. Much fault was found; 
the Americans insisted that the Monroe Doctrine be 
made safe. This was done. In the meantime Presi- 
dent Wilson had hurried home to be here when Con- 
gress adjourned. Time was pressing and Europe was 
in turmoil. Wilson hastened back. The conference 
took up the very grave problems of settling the bounda- 
ries of the many small nations. Some of these were 
new, made in part out of what had formerly been 
claimed by Russia, Germany, and Austria. Finally, tlu' 
treaty was ready for Germany. Her leaders spent most 



Recent Events 



489 



of May and June in making suggestions as to the kind 
of a treaty Germany would approve, AVith a few 
changes only the Germans were compelled to sign the 
Treaty June 28, 1919. President Wilson reached home 
July 8. He found the American people already discuss- 
ing the Treaty. He decided to make a trip, speaking 
throughout the West for the Treaty and the League of 
Nations. But on his trip he was suddenly stricken ill, 
and for a long time had to give up active duties. The 
Senate refused to ratify the Treaty and it became a lead- 
ing issue in the 1920 campaign. 

633. The Presidential Election of 1920. In the elec- 
tion of 1920 people voted on questions as much as they 
did on men. The League of Nations was the center of 
debate during the campaign. Some people were afraid 
that the League might compel us to go to war against 
our will. Both leading candidates were Ohio newspaper 
men. James M. Cox, the Democratic nominee, supported 
the League. He was over- 
whelmingly defeated by 
Warren G. Harding, who 
received over 7,000,000 
more votes than Cox. This 
was the largest majority 
ever given a President. 
The Republicans even 
carried two states of the 
" solid South," Missouri 
and Tennessee. Other 
nominees came from the 
Socialist, Farmer-Labor 
and Prohibition parties. 
This was the first election 
in which the women of the whole nation voted, making 
the total number of votes cast over twenty-six millions. 




Copyright by Harris <fe Ev 
WARREN G. HARDING 



490 The Bc^inniiif^s of Expansion 

634. Final Work of the War Congress. The close 
oi President Wilson's second term was largely taken up 
with getting back into the hands of private owners the 
telephone, telegraph, railroad, and shipping industries, 
all controlled by the government during the war. 

During the last months of the "War Congress" a much- 
needed reform in the business of governing our country 
was made. A commission was appointed to rearrange 
the work of the different departments of the President's 
cabinet. Each department of the government is divided 
and subdivided many times. The result is that several 
of these subdivisions have been trying to do the same 
kind of work. The care of public health, for example, 
is under many different departments, one of the chief 
being that of the Treasury ! Before long the executive 
side of our government will be reorganized so that it 
will work more smoothly. 

635. The Cost of War. This war cost more men 
and money, and destroyed more property than any 
other conflict. Not a single large nation in the world 
kept out of the war. The loss of life was awful; 7,500,000 
men were killed and 20,000,000 wounded. Nearly 
$200,000,000,000 worth of property was destroyed. This 
includes not only the great mountain of debt under 
which the different nations labor, but the devastation of 
fields of grain, the destruction of factories and mines, 
and the robbing and burning of the homes of the people. 
What a cruel thing war is ! 

636. The Aftermath of the War. For some time after 
the war business prosperity continued. But there was 
difficulty in finding a fair level between wages and prices. 
Both had risen greatly during the war, but not equally 
in all industries. There were many strikes in which the 
laborers demanded higher wages and shorter working 
hours. The most widespread strikes occurred in the 
M.fi-22 



Recent Events 491 

steel mills and soft coal mines, but these were finally 
unsuccessful, and the men returned to work. 

The cost of clothing, food, and other necessities had 
risen so rapidly that people everywhere were complain- 
ing of profiteering, and demanding lower prices. The 
Attorney General tried to punish profiteering, but prices 
were not easily cut down. 

Then about two years after the signing of the Armi- 
stice the United States began to feel other harmful effects 
of the war. Europe, burdened with huge war debts and 
a paper money steadily falling in value, was not far from 
bankruptcy. It could buy little, and our foreign trade 
suffered severely. Business became slack, and millions 
of people were left without work. However, as European 
affairs became more settled, business and unemploy- 
ment conditions at home gradually improved. 

637. The Work of the New Administration. The 
new Congress faced a crowded program. A resolution 
declaring the war at an end had already been passed, and 
now the United States made separate treaties of peace 
with Germany and her other war enemies, and carried 
on trade with them as before. Financial questions also 
were urgent. A new tariff' was passed under which cus- 
tom duties were to be paid not on the original cost of 
the article, but on the cost of the same kind of goods in 
the United States. This was called "American V^aluation." 

Congress lowered tlie tax rate on nearly all classes of 
incomes. It took off the taxes on certain articles of 
clothing and other things in everyday use, and changed 
the method of taxing business firms. It also tried in 
many ways to reduce the expenses of the government, 
which had increased greatly during the war. With 
President Harding's support two new bills, which nearly 
everyone has accepted as steps toward a more useful 
and efficient government, were soon passed. One of these 
M-6-22 



4Q2 The Beginnings of Expansion 

is a law for the introduction of a national budget. No one 
had ever figured carefully in advance just what the cost 
of our government would probably be during the coming 
year. Hence the year frequently ended with expenses 
outrunning income. Such a failure to balance accounts 
would soon throw any commercial firm into bankruptcy. 
Under the budget system, our national bookkeeping will 
be much more businesslike. 

Another good measure passed by the new Congress 
was a law for the protection of mothers and young 
children. As it was known that the death rate for children 
under one year was very high in the United States, there 
was little opposition to this bill. 

638. Settling Old Disputes. Reorganization of gov- 
ernment departments, the budget, and protection for 
infants and mothers were all subjects that had claimed 
public attention even before the war. Other points on 
which the government had long been urged to take 
action were : a more strict immigration law, free Panama 
Canal tolls, and a Colombian treaty. But on these sub- 
jects popular opinion was more divided. 

Now an immigration law was passed, limiting the 
number of people who could enter the United States 
from any foreign country. Each month only three 
per cent of the number of people already in the 
United States from that country could be admitted. 
There was some disagreement as'to the merits of this 
rule, but many people felt that such an immigration law 
was needed. 

Another much debated question was the Colombian 
treaty. Colombia felt that she should receive payment 
for the Canal Zone, because before the sudden revolu- 
tion setting up the republic of Panama, this territory 
belonged to her. She thought that the United States 
had recognized Panama too quickly, in order to obtain 

M-f.-22 



Recent Events 493 

the Canal Zone rights. So to establish friendly relations 
with this South American state, the Senate, in spite of 
much criticism, adopted a treaty promising to pay her 
twenty-five million dollars (§580). 

In October, 1921, the Senate passed a bill allowing 
American vessels carrying goods from one of our coasts 
to the other to pass through the Panama Canal free of 
toll. Many people thought this law contrary to an old 
treaty with Great Britain; but others said that the treaty 
did not apply to this coastwise trade, and that since the 
United States built the canal, it was her right to decide 
whether or not such vessels should pay toll. A final 
vote was postponed, and it was expected that Great 
Britain would insist upon having the question arbitrated. 

639. Our Relations with Foreign Countries. One 
difficulty growing out of the war was that our former 
Allies owed us a debt of nearly eleven billion dollars, on 
which not even the interest had been paid for three 
years. Many people thought that we ought not to urge 
payment, so a commission was created by Congress to 
find ways to make it easier for the debtor countries to 
repay us. 

In the autumn of 1921 a famine in the richest province 
of Russia threatened the loss of millions of lives. At 
the request of President Harding, Congress appropriated 
twenty million dollars to buy American grain for these 
starving people. This was also a great benefit to the 
American farmers, who were unable to sell all their 
grain, even at low prices, because of their bumper crops. 

640. The Washington Conference on Disarmament. 
On Armistice Day, 1921, a meeting of the leading world 
powers, called by President Harding, was held at 
Washington to discuss disarmament. At the very outset 
Secretary Hughes, the chairman, startled the delegates 
by the boldness of his disarmament plan. He asked for 
M-6-22 



494 The Beginnings of Expansion 

a "naval holiday" of ten years — the great naval powers 
were to agree not to add any dreadnaughts to their 
navies during this period, and were to get rid of a large 
part of the warships they already had. But the United 
States would have to make much the heaviest sacrifices. 
The other powers could not refuse to accept an offer 
made in such good faith, and after slight changes the 
plan was adopted. 

The conference also reached agreements on many 
other questions. The nations pledged themselves not 
to resort to poison gas warfare in the future, and to limit 
the use of submarines against merchant vessels. They 
made treaties to lessen the danger of war in the Pacific, 
agreeing, among other things, that no country should 
build fortifications there which might be useful in 
attacking another country. China was promised that she 
would be allowed to buy back her rights in Shantung, 
and Great Britain offered to give back to her the leased 
territory of Weihaiwei. The conference closed with a 
fine list of achievements, and people everywhere felt that 
real progress in doing away with national jealousy and in 
promoting disarmament and world peace had been made, 

641. The Wireless Telephone. The war stimulated 
invention. The airplane is sometimes called the eyes of 
the army. The wireless telegraph and the wireless tele- 
phone became its ears. Ships had been equipped with 
the wireless telegraph before the war. We are all famil- 
iar with the heroic stories of wireless operators in dis- 
asters such as the sinking of the Titanic. The wireless 
telephone was put into practical use on a moving train 
in 1914, and in long-distance communication the follow- 
ing year. 

The usefulness of the wireless telephone, like that of 
the wireless telegraph, is greatest in communicating 
between moving objects, such as airplanes, ships, and 
M-6-22 



Recent Events 495 

trains, and over long distances where wires cannot be 
strung. Such a use of it is being made by the polar 
explorers of the Amundsen expedition. Its advantage 
over the wireless telegraph is two-fold; any one can speak 
over it, without using a code; and practically any 
number can hear the message. 

The wireless telephone has made so great an impres- 
sion on our daily life, that we already hear of the "Age 
of Radio." The farmer, the shut-in, the prisoner are no 
longer isolated. Nation speaks with nation. There is 
a movement gaining headway to devise an international 
radio language. There are national and international 
regulations to govern the use of the radio waves. The 
only limit to wireless seems to be in the supply of 
the ether by means of which the waves travel. Marconi 
and other inventors who have been perfecting the 
instruments of wireless communication say that we are 
only at the beginning of what radio, that energy which 
takes only a fraction of a second to encircle the globe, 
can do. 

642. The Genoa Conference. Closely following the 
Conference for the Limitation of Armaments, came an 
invitation from Lloyd George, Prime Minister of Great 
Britain, for the great nations to gather at Genoa, in 
Italy. The meeting was to discuss the financial con- 
dition of Europe. Business was naturally poorer in 
Europe than in America. Our government declined the 
invitation. The reason given was that the meeting was 
not to be an open one, and that the program showed 
that politics rather than business would be discussed. 

What our government feared, happened. Russia is 
the greatest problem of Europe today. For five years 
it has been a communistic state. That is, it declares 
that property should be owned by the nation, and not 
by the individual. It refuses to pay the debts of the 
M-&-22 



496 The Beginnings of Expansion 

nation, and has seized all property owned by foreign 
companies or individuals within its territory. It is also 
trying to stir up the other nations of Europe to become 
communistic. 

Germany is the second great problem. She claims that 
she cannot pay the sums she agreed to pay to France. 
France, with Russia on one hand and Germany on the 
other, fears both. She needs the money Germany does 
not pay to rebuild her business and restore property 
destroyed by the war. She also needs peace, so that she 
can send her soldiers home. 

But Russia and Germany formed an alliance at Genoa 
called the Rampallo treaty. Great Britain, who desired 
to revive her trade with Germany and with Russia, 
seems to have been outwitted. France threatens war if 
the powers allow this alliance to stand. Meantime, 
American bankers have offered a great loan to Germany 
and to Russia. The issue remains to be seen. 



STUDY QUESTIONS AND COLLATERAL 
READING 

{,The black-letter figures refer in all cases to the sectiotis of the text.) 

(1-13.) I. Make a list of the reasons why Europeans 
wanted to get to India, 2. Explain just what the Crusades, 
Marco Polo, and Prince Henry each did to help along the 
discovery of America, j. Make a list of the leading early 
explorers and tell where each got his knowledge of the sea. 
^. Tell what hindered and what helped Columbus. 5. Name 
the nations which refused the chance of discovering America, 
d. Trace Columbus* route on a map, 7. What difference 
might it have made to us had Columbus gone directly west 
from Spain ? 8. Make a " continuous picture " of the first 
voyage, p. Show how Columbus' discovery influenced other 
nations. 10. How do you account for Spain's ill treatment 
of Columbus ? II. What advantages for discovery did Spain 
and Portugal have over other countries ? 

Histories: Fiske's Discoi'ery of America, I., 164-171 (Northmen); 
280-2S4 (JNIarco Polo); II., 4-7 (John Cabot). Wright's Stories of Amer- 
icntt History, 27-37 (Northmen); 3S-60 (Columbus). Irving's Life of 
Columbus, I. Hale's Stories of Discovery, 34-58 (Da Gama). Towle's 
Heroes of History. 

Sources: Hart's Source Book, 1-6. American History Leaflets, 
Nos. 3 and 9. Old South Leaflets, II., Nos. 29, 31, 32, 33; III., 71. 

(14-26.) I. What must each nation do to make good its 
claiins to new territory ? 2. Why were the Indians an excep- 
tion ? J. Make a list of Spanish explorers, with names of 
regions visited. ^. If Columbus had lived in 1522, what would 
he have learned about his own discoveries ? 5. What causes 
drew the Spaniards southward ? 6. What difference would it 
probably have made if they had gone northward ? 7. What 
was the main motive of the Spaniard? Prove. 8. Draw a 
line across the map of North America through the most 
northerly points reached by Spain, g. What led the French- 
men to the St. Lawrence region ? 10. What other region 
did the French try to settle, and why did they fail ? 11. 
Whv is Champlain called the "Father" of New France? 
12. Name the causes why England took new interest in 
America in Elizabeth's time. ij. Prove that Drake and 

(XV) 



xvi The Appendix 

Raleigh agreed in their feelings toward Spain, i^. "What 
conclusions can you draw from the fact that Drake would 
not now be permitted to treat the Spaniards as he did ? 75. 
What two motives influenced Raleigh to plant a colony ? 
Do you think that Queen Elizabeth agreed with him ? 16. 
What causes made Gilbert and Raleigh fail ? 77. Which of 
these causes probably worked against any new colony of, 
that day ? 18. Why did Raleigh give up the attempt to 
plant a settlement, and what did England learn from his 
failure ? ig. Draw on a map lines showing the regions 
claimed by each nation. 20. Did each nation claim more 
than it really owned ? Prove your answer. 21. Compare the 
regions as to climate, soil, and products. 22. Prove that 
England claimed the best region. .??. Give some reasons 
why the Englishman and the Indian could not live together 
peaceably. .?./. State the advantages and the disadvantages 
which the Indian had in a war with the white man. 

Histories: Fiske's Discovery of America, II., 184, 188-189, 190-207 
(Masjellan); 245-255 (Cortez); 385,391-408 (Pizarro); 390,398,509(068010). 
Parkman's Pioneers of France, 175-1S0 (Verrazanu) ; 210-227 (Cartier); 
228-253 (The Huguenots); 254-258 (Raleigh). Hale's Stories of Discov- 
-^O'' 59'85 (Magellan); 86-106 (Sir Francis Drake). Thwaites' Colonies, 
7-19. Fisher's Colonial Era, 5-11. 

Sources: Hart's Source Book, 6-8, 9-11. Americatt History Leaf- 
lets, No. 13. Old South Leaflets, I., Nos. 17, 20; II., Nos. 34, 35, 36, 
37. Hart's Contemporaries, I., 158 (Letter to Queen Elizabeth). 

Fiction: Novels, Munroe's Flatningo Feat/ier; Kingsley's West- 
ward Ho ! Henty's Under Drake's Flag. Poems, Longfellow's Sir 
Humphrey Gilbert and Hiawatha. 

(27-38.) /. Prove that Raleigh's work was not without 
results. 2. State the purposes of the Company, the king, and 
the settlers in planting Jamestown. What conclusions can 
you draw ? j. What contradiction in the charter ? /f.. Make 
a list of reasons why the first settlers did not work well. 

5. Name ways in which John Smith worked for the colony. 

6. Compare the work of Smith and Dale. 7. Why did not 
the first manufactures pay as well as the raising of tobacco ? 
8. Explain the effect of raising tobacco on {a) population, 
i^b) occupations, {c) classes of laborers, p. Prove that good 
came out of Argall's tyranny, and state who deserves the 
credit for it. 10. Why was calling a "representative assem- 
bly" no experiment? //. Visit the gallery of the church at 
Jamestown, July 30, 1619, and "picture" the scene. 12. What 
laws were passed by thrt Virginia Assembly which could 
not now be passed ? ij. Prove the founding of the House of 
Burgesses a great event, i^. What changes in Lhe colony 



Study Questions and Collateral Reading xvii 

made the settlers wish to make Virginia their home ? I§. 
How did the Company encourage this wish, and what were 
the effects? i6. Make a Hst of important events in 1619. 
I J. Why did the planters buy the negroes ? iS. What was 
the difference between an "indented" servant and a negro 
servant ? ig. Make a list of the effects of slavery on the 
colony. 20. Write in your notebook reasons for admiring 
the London Company. 

(39-45.) /. On what point did Virginia and England 
agree ? What did the turning of Harvey out of office mean ? 
2. On what point did Virginians and Puritans not agree? 
Were the laws against Puritans wise ? Prove your answer. 
J. Why did Virginia welcome the Cavaliers ? How did their 
coming help the colony ? </. On what conditions did Virginia 
" surrender " ? What does this treaty prove ? 5. Make a list 
showing the differences between Virginia under Charles I. 
and under Cromwell. 6. Why did Virginians show joy over 
Charles H.? 7. Explain how the Navigation Law gave Eng- 
lish merchants a double advantage over Americans. 8. Why 
did Culpeper and Arlington not get possession of Virginia? 
Was this the first time the colonists opposed their king? 
Explain, p. Why were most of Bacon's men from the poorer 
classes? Why did the rich planters not rebel? 10. Make a 
list of reasons for a new election of burgesses. //. Why 
were there so few schools in Virginia in 1693 ? 12. Of what 
use was a college in the colony ? 

Histories: Fiske's Old Virginia and Her Neighbors, I,, 64-65, 
71-76 (London Company); 80-91 (John Smith); 1S5-188 (First Represent- 
ative Assembly in America) ; 218-220 (End of London Company) ; 253- 
254 (Virginia in 1642); IL, 12-14 (Cavaliers) ; 55-56 (Berkeley); 64-65 
(Bacon) ; 77-80 (Bacon's Rebellion). Thwaites' Colonies, 66-75, 75-79 
(During the Commonwealth and Berkeley's Second Rule). Fisher's 
Colonial Era, 30-48 (Early Virginia) ; 49-56 (Navigation Laws and 
Bacon's Rebellion). Cooke's Virginia, 113-118 (The First Assembly); 
119-124 (Maids and Slaves); 195-207 (Commonwealth); 230-232, 258-264 
(Bacon's Rebellion). Cothn's Old Times in tJie Colonies, 90-92, 107-110, 
259-264 (Berkeley and Bacon). Cooke's Stories of the Old Dominion, 
29-55 (John Smith and Pocahontas); 56-64 (The Old Dominion); 65-81 (The 
Great Rebellion). 

Sources : Hart's Source Book, 11-14. American History Leaflets, 
No. 27 ; No. 19 (Navigation Acts). Hart's American History Told by 
Contemporaries, L, 218-225; 229-233 (Condition of Virginia in 1623); 
237-241 (Condition of Virginia in 1671). Mace's \Vorki?ig Manual of 
Americaft History, 126-128. 

Fiction : Mary Johnston's To Have and to Hold and Audrey. 

(46-58.) I- Name the persecuted classes who have pre- 
viously come to America. 2. Point out differences between 



xviii The Appendix 

the government in Maryland and that in Vir.sj-inia. j. How 
did the first settlers of Maryland and Virginia differ ? 4. Name 
three causes of trouble between Maryland and Virginia. 5. 
Prove that Cromwell dealt wisely with both Maryland and 
Virginia. 6. Prove that the changes in government when 
Charles II. became king were less in Maryland than in Vir- 
ginia. 7. Map the first Carolina settlements. 8. Give reasons 
why the settlers opposed the Grand Model, g. Keep a table 
of quarrels between the people of the colonies and their 
governors, showing what each dispute was about, when and 
in what colony it occurred. 10. Keep a list of the classes of 
settlers, showing their name, country, and the colony in which 
they settled. 11. Make a list of dift'erences between North 
and South Carolina. 12. In what ways did the settlement 
of Georgia differ from that of the other southern colonies? 
ij. Diagram or summarize the history of each southern col- 
ony, using the paragraph headings as main topics. 

Histories: Fiske's Old Virginia and Her Neighbors, I., 255-256 
(George Calvert); 263-274 (Lord Baltimore and the Marj'land Charter); 
II., 276-279 (First Colonies in Carolina); 294-297 (The Quakers); 308- 
316, 322-324 (Comparison of the Carolinas) ; 333-336 (Georgia). Thwaites' 
Colonies, 81-87 (Maryland) ; 87-95 (Carolina and Georgia). Fisher's O'A^- 
nial Era, b'z-i'^ (Marylandy; 76-81 (The Carolinas). Cooke's Virginia, 
\lb-\ic) (Baltimore and Claiborne). Coffin's Old Times in the Colonies, 
337-349 (Carolinas); 350-356 (Georgia). 

Sources: Source Book, 4S-51, 71-73, loS-ioo Hart's Contempo- 
raries, I., 252-257, ib-i-i~\ (Maryland); 110-114 (Oglethorpe's Own Plan). 
Hart's Source Readers, I., 23-48. 

Fiction: ftimms' The Yemassee. 

(59-64.) /. Make a list of colonies outside of New England 
which contained some Puritans. Tell how Puritans and 
Episcopalians differed. 2. How did Separatists and other 
Puritans agree and how did they differ? j. Why did the 
king persecute the Separatists more than the other Puritans ? 
/f.. Which was the more advanced in its treatment of relig- 
ious questions, England or Holland ? Prove your answer. 
5. Name the feeling which caused the Pilgrims to leave Hol- 
land. 6. What did they say in the compact, and what does 
it mean ? 7. What does it prove that the Pilgrims did not 
return to England in the spring ? S. Make a list of good 
examples which the Pilgrims set for the world. 

(65-76.) I. Give the cause and the immediate purpose 
of the great Puritan migration. 2. Describe the government 
set up by the charter of 1629. j. Why did the Bay Colony 
succeed better at the beginning than either Plymouth or 
Jamestown ? ./. Why did the Puritans always settle in towns? 



Study Questions and Collateral Reading xix 

5, Make a list of the advantages of this plan of settlement as 
compared with the Virginia or southern plan. 6. What was 
the feeling of the Bay Colony Puritans toward other sects ? 
On this point did this colony resemble or differ from Ply- 
mouth? From Virginia? 7. What does it mean that only 
church members were permitted to vote ? 8. Who voted in 
Virginia after Berkeley became governor the second time? 
p. Why did Watertown refuse to pay the tax ? What decla- 
ration did the Virginia House of Burgesses make about tax- 
ation ? 10. Which was the conservative and which the 
democratic part of the General Court ? Prove. 11. Who was 
the conservative leader and what did he say to justify his 
party ? Do you agree with him ? J2. What is the meaning 
of Hooker's answer ? Do you agree with him ? Why did he 
leave Boston ? ij. With which ideas of Roger Williams do 
you agree ? What did nations then think of such teachings ? 
i^. What does it mean that the majority against Williams was 
small? 75. What good results came out of the banishment 
of Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson ? Who deserves 
the credit ? 16. What was The Body of Liberties ? ij. Who 
wanted a written body of laws and why? Make a list of 
the other points on which these two parties differed. iS. 
What class favored education ? Why ? 

(77-84.) I. Explain the connection between the banish- 
ment of Roger Williams and the danger to the charter. 2. 
Name three reasons why Massachusetts was commanded to 
give up her charter, j. How did she make answer, and what 
does it prove ? ^. Name the causes which drew the four col- 
onies together. 5. Infer a reason why Rhode Island was not 
taken into the union. 6. Describe the plan of government, 
and state the uses of such a imion. 7. What were the pecu- 
liar ideas and teaching of the Quakers ? 8. How can you 
explain the cruel punishment of Quakers by England and 
Massachusetts ? g. Who won the victory, Puritan or Quaker? 
What does it prove ? 10. What new reasons could Charles 
II. find for taking away this charter? 11. What similar 
reasons did James I. have for taking away the charter of 
Virginia ? 12. What change did James II. and Andros make 
in the government of Massachusetts ? /j. Picture the over- 
throw of Andros. i/f.. Compare the overthrow of Andros 
with that of Berkeley. 75. What changes did the charter 
given by William and Mary make ? 

Histories: Fiske's Beginnings of New England, 65-87, 95-104 
(Salem Founded, Charter Granted, the Cambridge Meeting, and the 
Transfer of the Charter to America) ; 105-108 (No Taxation Without 



XX The Appendix 

Representation ; Separation of General Court into Two " Houses "); 
1 14-11Q (Roger Williams and Mrs. Hutchinson); 261-274 (Struggle Over 
the Charter; Anfiros). Thwaites' Co/om'rs, ii6'i24, 124-127 (First Set- 
tlements in Massachusetts); 127-136 (Political and Religious Disputes) ; 
130 (Harvard); i?4-i5g (Confederation); 165-166 (Quakers). Fisher's 
Colonial Era, 85-99, 100-122, 146-148 (Quakers); 149-164 (Andros). 
Drake's Making of New England, 67-S7 (The Pilgrims); 149-155 (Salem 
Colony); 155-160 (The Great Migration); 108-172 (Boston); 172-184 
(Customs and Government); 214-21S (Harvard College and the First 
Printing Press). Coflftn's Old Times in the Colonies, 111-140 (The 
Pilgrims and Plymouth); 152-170 (Puritan Beginnings); 216-223 (The 
Quakers) ; 241-250 (King Philip's Wars) ; 265-270 (Andros and the 
Charters). Hawthorne's Grandjather' s Chair, 10-26 (Pilgrims and Puri- 
tans) ; 28-42 (Roger Williams and Mrs. Hutchinson) ; 55-5S (The Quakers) ; 
108-114 (The Old-Fashioned School). 

Sources : American History Leaflets, Nos. 29 and 25 (Body of 
Liberties). Hart's Source Book, 37-41, 80-82. Preston's Documents, 
29-3 1 (' ' Maj'flower " Compact). Hart's History Told by Contetnporaries, 
I-. 35*^-359. 382-3S7(Mrs. Hutchinson's Trial). Mace's Working Manual, 
129-131 (Body of Liberties); (A Quaker Letter, i66i). Old South 
Leaflets, Nos. 7, 48-55, 66, 67, 88. Hart's Source Reader, Nos. i, 10, 11, 
20, 21, 41-43, 45, 46. 

Fiction and Poetry: Stowe's Mayflower. Austin's Standish of 
Standish. Mrs. Heman's The Pilgrim Eathers. Longtellow's Court- 
ship of Miles Standish. 

(85-96.) I. How did the people of New Hampshire differ 
from those of Massachusetts ? 2. Give reasons for the emi- 
gration of Hooker and others to the Connecticut Valley. 
?. What caused the Connecticut towns to imite ? if.. Prove 
that Hooker's sermon agreed with what he said to Winthrop 
(5? 7°)- 5- With which man do you agree? Why? 6. When, 
where, and by whom was New Haven founded ? 7. How did 
the New Haven union differ from the Connecticut union ? 
S. When, why, and by whom were Connecticut and New 
Haven united ? 9. Picture the charter's defense. 10. Why 
was Roger Williams ordered back to England, and why did 
he go to Rhode Island instead? //. For whom did he found 
Rhode Island ? Prove. 12. Why and by whom were Ports- 
mouth and Newport founded ? /j. What towns composed 
the "Colony of Rhode Island"? 77. Prove that the Plymouth, 
Connecticut, and Rhode Island colonies were more demo- 
cratic than Massachusetts and New Haven. 75. What col- 
onies united to form Massachusetts? Connecticut? Rhode 
Island ? 

Histories: Fiske's Beginnings of New England, 122-128 (Con- 
necticut); 134-I37 (New Haven). Thwaites' Colonics, 140-144 (Connec- 
ticut); 144-146 (New Haven); 146-150 (Rhode Island); 150-152 (Maine); 
152-153 (New Hampshire). Fisher's Colonial Era, 123-132. Drake's 
Making of New England, 119-127 (Pioneers of Maine); 130-137 (Pioneers 
of New Hampshire); 187-194 (Pioneers of Connecticut); 194-203 (Early 



Study Questions and Collateral Reading xxi 

Days of Rhode Island) ; 219-220 (New Haven). Coffin's Old Times in 
the Colonies, 184-194 (Rhode Island and New Hampshire). Wright's 
Stories in American History, 267-291 (Maine). 

Sources: Old South Leaflets, Nos. 8, 93. American History 
Leaflets. Hart's Source Book, 52-54 (Rhode Island). Hart's Contempo- 
raries, I., 414-415 (New Haven); 430-434 (Maine). 

Fiction and Poetry : Seton's Romance of the Charter Oak. 

(97-108.) /. What two great results were accomplished 
by the fur traders ? What other colony was ruled at first by 
a trading company? 2. Imagine yourself on a patroon's 
plantation, and tell what you see there, j. Write in notebook 
the points of resemblance and of difference between a pa- 
troon's and a Virginia plantation, /j.. List the reasons why 
New Netherland wanted self-government. 5. What is the 
meaning of the letter sent to Holland ? 6. Make a list of 
colonies that persecuted on account of religious views. 7. 
What does Stuyvesant's declaration as to his source of 
authority prove in regard to his views of government ? 8. 
Prove that the people's refusal to fight the English was the 
natural result of Stuyvesant's government, p. What right, 
if any, did England have to capture New Netherland ? 10. 
What were two great needs of the colony under the English ? 
Which was obtained? //. How did James H. disappoint the 
people of New York ? 12. Make a list of the colonies whose 
governments William and Mary changed. 

Histories: Fiske's Dutch and Quaker Colonies, I., 82-94 (Henry 
Hudson); 133-137 (Patroon System); 198-201 (Stuyvesant). Thwaites' 
Colofties, 196-203 (New York Under Dutch) ; 203-207 (New York Under 
English). Fisher's Colo7iial Era, 176-193. Anderson and Flick's His- 
tory, 1.43. Roberts' AVw FtT/^, I., 19-33 (Hudson and the Fur Traders); 
68-88(The Rule of Stuyvesant); 89-1 14 (The Surrender); 178-198 (Andros 
and Dongan); 198-214 (Leisler's Rebellion). Coffin's Old Times in the 
Colonies, 195-205 (Affairs in Manhattan) ; 224-233 (End of Dutch Rule in 
America). Wright's Stories in American History, 292-299 (Henry 
Hudson and the Knickerbockers). 

Sources: Old South Leaflets, "^os. 69, 72, 94. Hart's Source Book, 
85-88. Liberty Bell Leaflets, No. i. Hart's Contemporaries, 537-541, 
544-547 (Leisler's Rebellion). 

Fiction: Irving's Kitickerbocker's History of New York. Elbridge 
Brooks' In Leisler's Times. Byner's The Begunis Daughter. 

(109-122.) 4. Why did Sweden plant a colony in America 
and who were its different owners ? 2. Explain how Dela- 
ware and Pennsylvania were connected, j. By whom was 
the first settlement made in New Jersey? 4.. Who settled 
Newark ? Make a list of colonies, outside of New England, 
containing Puritans. 5. Explain how New Jersey came to be 
divided, and point out peculiarities in the government of 



xx'ii The Appendix 

West Jersey. 6. When and why did New Jersey become a 
royal province ? y. What other colonies contained Quakers 
before Pennsylvania ? <!>'. Who founded the Quakers' belief 
and who their colony ? g. What was their great principle 
and in what other ways did they differ from other sects ? 
lo. What ideas did Quakers have then which we have now? 
ji. Picture Penn's reception at Newcastle. 12. What is the 
meaning of the name " Philadelphia " ? /?. Why were the 
people not contented under Penn's rule, after he had sacri- 
ficed so much for them ? //. Who besides Quakers settled 
in Pennsylvania ? 

Histories: Fiske's Dutch and Quaker Colo7iies, II., 114-117 

(William Penn) ; 147-152 (Penn's Claim and Experiment). Thwaites' 
Co/onit's, 215-217 (Pennsylvania); 207-210 (Delaware); 210-214 (New 
Jersey). Fisher's T/ie Colonial Era, 194-206. Eggleston's Household 
History, 58-62 (Pennsylvania). Coffin's Old Times in the Colonies, 
291-293 (New Jersey) ; 297-302 (Pennsylvania). 

Sources : Liberty Bell Leaflets, Nos. 1 ,.2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. Old South 
Leaflets. Hart's Source Book, bi-bi (New Jersey) ; 67-69 (Pennsylvania); 
69-71 (Delaware). Hart's Contetnporaries, 554-557 (Penn's Account of 
Pennsylvania) ; 557-558 (Penn's Treaty with Indians). Hart's Source 
Reader, Nos. i and 49. 

(123-133.) I. Name and locate the most important towns in 
1750. 2. Why did settlements follow the rivers? j. Complete 
your list of European nations which sent colonists and explain 
why the non- English were most numerous in the middle colo- 
nies. ^. Make a list of old-world ideas and customs brought 
to America. 5. Name and describe each social class among 
the colonists and make a list of the ways in which social 
differences were shown. 6. Picture a governor's reception. 
Why did he put on so much style? 7. Picture "rent day." 
What would you have said and done had you been the 
patroon ? Had you been the renter? 8. What houses came 
first in planting a colony, and why? p. How and why did 
northern and southern homes differ? 10. Make a list of 
things common in our day which colonial houses did not 
have ; which colonial kitchens did not have. //. What did 
nature furnish the settler for food and clothing ? 12. What 
good did the colonists get out of training-day? 

(134-143.) /. What things hindered schools in all the colo- 
nies ? 2. Prove that it was easier to have schools in New Eng- 
land than in New York or the southern colonies, j. How did 
children learn to read and write when there were no schools 
near ? /{.. What conditions discouraged libraries ? 5. Find 
out all you can about Benjamin Franklin as a printer. 6. How 
did a colonial newspaper differ from a present-day one ? 



Study Questions and Collateral Reading xxiii 

7. Why did the people rejoice when Zenger was set free ? 8, 
Prove that many religious sects were an advantage to America. 
g. Which colonies favored toleration ? Prove that toleration 
has or has not grown since colonial days. 10. What ways were 
there of punishing law-breakers not now used? Why not 
used now ? //. Who besides the people of Salem believed in 
witchcraft ? Why have people ceased to believe in witches ? 
(144-149.) /. Make a list of occupations common to all 
the colonies. Another list of those peculiar to each group. 
2. Why did the northern colonies have more occupations 
than the southern ? j. What occupations brought most 
money into New England ? into New York ? into Pennsyl- 
vania ? into Virginia ? into Carolina and Georgia ? 4.. 
What occupations were necessary in shipbuilding? jr. 
Compare Pennsylvania and Virginia farming. 6. Picture 
the London ship at the planter's wharf, and explain why 
the southern planter had to buy more than the northern 
farmer. 7. Make a list of the means of travel in colonial 
days. Why were southern people the best colonial horsemen ? 

Histories: Lodge's Short History of the English Colonies, 77-84 
(Virginia Life); 133-136 (Life in South Carolina); 248-253, 238-260 (Life 
in Pennsylvania) ; 326-333, 334-336 (Life in New York) ; 445, 448, 449-451, 
453-454 (New England Life) ; 74-76 (Education in Virginia) ; 252 (Travel in 
Pennsylvania); 254-257 (Education in Pennsylvania); 313-314 (Trade in 
New York) ; 318-319 (Religious Condition of New York) ; 325-326 (Educa- 
tion in New York) ; 409-411 (Trade in New England) ; 429-430 (Puritan 
Sabbath) ; 465-467 (Education in New England). Thwaites' Colonies, 186- 
188 (New England) ; 222-224 (Middle Colonies); 280-281 (Southern Colo- 
nies); 224-226 (Trade in the Middle Colonies); 229-231 (Intellectual and 
Moral Conditions) ; 184-186 (Trade in New England) ; 188-192 (Education 
and Religion in New England). Eggleston's Household History, gi-98 
(Life in the Colonies) ; 99-113 (Trade and Industry). Roosevelt's Win- 
ning of the West, I., 1 10-125 (Life on the Frontier). Fisher's Colonial 
Era, 313-320. Fiske's New France and New England, 133-196 (Witch- 
craft in Europe and in Salem). 

Sources: Wa.vx.''-, Source Book, 1 1 5-1 17 (Philadelphia) ; ii7-ii9(New 
York Life) ; 122-123 (A Colonial Schoolboy) ; 91-92 (Plantation Life) ; S8-90 
(Trade). Mace's Working Manual, 133-136 (Commerce). Hart's Con- 
temporaries, II., 52-55 (New England in 1720); 61-63 (Boston in 1750) ; 
65-68 (Pennsylvania); 75-77 (Philadelphia in 1710); 77-79 (Germans in 
New York); 87-89 (New York City in 1760); 94-100 (South Carolina); 103- 
106 ("The Parson's Cause"); 224-229 (Travel) ; 235-238 (Society in Vir- 
ginia, 1732); 244-250 (Pirates and Smuggling) ; 290-311 (Slavery). Source 
Reader, No. 1, 107-111 (Indian School); 201-223 (Colonial Schools); 34-51 
(Pirates) ; No. 2, 1-36 (Home Life) ; 37-69 (Highways and Byways). 

(150-160.) I. With what European nations has England 
struggled for control of North America ? 2. Picture the In- 
dian battle in 1609 and explain its bearing upon the struggle 
for North America, j. Trace on a map the early French 

8S 



xxiv The Appendix 

route from the St. Lawrence to the Mississippi. ^. Explain 
the difference between the purposes and modes of settlement 
of Englishmen and Frenchmen. 5. Why did Frenchmen get 
on better with the Indians than did Englishmen ? 6. What 
natural advantages in position did the French colonies have 
over the English ? 7. Name the causes common to all the 
wars between the English and French colonists. 8. What 
double advantage to the French if Frontenac had captured 
New York ? p. Picture the massacre at Schenectady and 
give its most important effect. 10. Make a list of the events 
in which more than one colony took part. 11. What is the 
meaning of this cooperation between the colonies ? 

(161-179.) I. State the remote and the immediate causes of 
the French and Indian War, 2. Why was possession of the 
region at the source of the Ohio River important to both 
French and English ? j. Name the two purposes of the 
meeting at Albany. ^. Make a list of reasons why Brad- 
dock's expedition failed. 5. Was England justified in scatter- 
ing the Acadians ? 6. Account for the failures of the English 
in 1756 and 1757. 7. What sort of a man was Pitt, and what 
did he do to win victories ? 8. Why was 1759 a great year in 
English history .? ^. Make a list of the important events in 
the French and Indian War. 10. What two keys to Canada 
did the French have before Quebec ? 11. Make a picture of 
the capture of Quebec. Prove that the capture of Quebec 
was one of the "decisive battles of the world." 12. Write 
in your notebook a full explanation of what it means to us 
that France was driven out of North America, 

Histories : Thwaites' Colonies, 246-257. Parkman's Pioiieers of 
France, 310-324 (Champlain and the Iroquois); 55-70; (Discovery of 
Mississippi and Great Lakes) ; 46-47 (Frontenac) ; 80-SS (Montcalm and 
Wolfe). Dunn's Indiana, 41-131 (Life in French Villages). Hart's 
Formation of the Union, 24-28 ; 30-34 (The War); 34-41 (Results of 
War); 28-30 (Albany Plan). Lodge's George Washington (Stattsmen 
Series), I. , 64-66; 68-74 (First Campaign). Fiske's AVw France and New 
England, 58-71 (Champlain) ; 98-132 (The French in the Mississippi 
Valley ; 249-256 (Capture of Louisburg) ; 258-278 (The First Collisions) ; 
279-293 (}>raddock's Defeat) ; 294-325 (Crown Point and Ticonderoga) ; 
326-359 (Louisburg, Fort Duquesne, and Quebec). Roosevelt's Winning 
of the IVest, L, 25-48 (Ohio Valley). Wright's Stories in American 
History, 316-330 (La Salle). Cooke's Stories of t/ie Old Dominion, 94-109 
(Washington the Surveyor); 110-122 (Wushnigton in the Wilderness); 
123-139 (Braddock and His Defeat). Hawthorne's Grandfather's Chair, 
140-149 (Louisburg); 152-169 (The Old French War). 

Sources: Hart's Source Book, 14-17 (Champlain); 96-98 (La Salle) ; 
103-105 (Braddock's Defeat) ; 105-107 (Capture of Quebec). Hart's Con- 
temporaries, H., 140-144 (La Salle and the Mississippi) ; 320-322 (French 
Fur Trade) ; 346-349 (Louisburg Expedition). 



Study Questions and Collateral Reading xxv 

Fiction and Poetry: Catherwood's The Story of Tojtty. Cooper's 
Last of the Mohicans. Thackeray's Virginians. Henty's With Wolfe 
in Canada. Monroe's y^/ War With Pontiac. Sewall's A Virginia 
Cavalier (Washington in the French and Indian War). Longfellow's 
Evangeline. 

(180-183.) I. Prove that the French and Indian War be- 
long'ed to both the colonial and the revolutionary periods. 
2. What influences made the Englishmen in America become 
different from the Englishmen in England ? j. What double 
advantage did the Navigation Acts give England over her 
colonies? ^. How did the law relating to wool and woolen 
goods favor England ? 5. What effect did English trade 
laws have on America ? 6. Why did the colonists favor, and 
the king oppose, paying royal officers by vote of the assem- 
blies ? 7. What resolution did George III. make on coming 
to the throne, and how did he set about carrying it out in 
England? 8. Show how bribing Parliament injured Amer- 
ica, p. Prove that England, as well as America, had cause 
to oppose George III. 

(184-199.) I. Make a list of the general causes of the 
American Revolution and a second list of the immediate or 
particular causes. 2. What two effects on the thoughts and 
feelings of the Americans did the immediate causes of the 
Revolution produce? j. On what principle did the Amer^ 
icans oppose the unjust acts of England down to 1776-^ 
^. Why did the king wish to break up smuggling ? Why did 
the Americans wish to continue it ? 5. Quote James Otis' 
" keynote " and explain how the writs violated it. 6. What 
old British right was violated by the Admiralty courts ? 
7. Point out the difference between the Stamp tax and the 
old customs duties. 8. Make a list of the reasons why the 
Americans opposed this tax. p. What right did this new law 
violate ? Make a list of all rights violated by the English 
government. 10. Prove that Americans were not so much 
opposed to paying money to England as to the way in which 
this Act compelled them to do it. ii. In how many ways 
did the colonies oppose the Stamp Act ? Explain how each 
means helped to bring about its repeal. 12. What other 
great effects did these means unite in causing? ij. How 
did James Otis' speech, Patrick Henry's resolutions, and the 
Declaration of Rights agree ? i^. Make a list in notebook 
of time, place, and purpose of intercolonial meetings before 
1765. i^. What is the meaning of Christopher Gadsden's 
speech ? 16. How did Pitt differ from Burke in demand- 
ing the repeal of the Stamp Act ? Which agreed with the 



xxvi The Appendix 

Americans ? ly. What do you infer from the fact that both 
England and America rejoiced over the repeal? i8. Name 
the effects of the Stamp Act which lasted after the repeal. 
ig. What was new and what was old about the Tea tax ? 
20. Prove that the money from the new tax was raised tor 
dangerous purposes. 21. Read the Circular Letter and tell 
what Samuel Adams accomplished by it, 22. What were the 
cause, purpose, and result of North's tea tricks ? 2j. What 
were the Committees of Correspondence, and how did they 
carry on their work? 2^. Why was there no "tea party" 
in New York or Philadelphia ? 25. Shut your eyes and 
" see " the Boston " tea party " from the beginning to the 
end. 26. How did the Committees of Correspondence work 
in carrying out the tea party ? 2y. Was it not wrong to 
destroy the tea ? Prove your answer. 

(200-203.) I. What was the main question in the quarrel 
before the tea party ? 2. Prove that the new question raised 
by the new acts of Parliament was more important, j. Give 
time, place, purpose, immediate cause, and leading men of the 
Congress of 1774. 4. What is new about acts "3 " and "4" 
(p. 174) ? 5. What is the meaning of the failure of Chatham's 
and Burke's efforts and of Franklin's leaving England ? 6. 
Make a list of men favoring union of colonies from 1754 to 
1774, and write after each name the time, place, and work. 

(204-210.) I. Make a "continuous picture" of events 
from the signal to Paul Revere till the British reached Boston 
again. Add, by inference, other results of the fight to those 
named in the text. 2. Picture the battle of Bunker Hill and 
prove it a victory for both sides, j. What had Washington 
done to prove himself a soldier? ^. How did Ethan Allen's 
victory help Washington at Boston ? 5. Prove that it is bet- 
ter to win a victory by strategy than by fighting. 6. Why 
did the Tories leave Boston with the British ? 7. Make a list 
of battles and mark them as American or English victories. 
8. What did the Americans wish to accomplish by fighting in 
1775? 

Histories: Hawthorne's Grandfather's Chair, 182-201 (Stamp Act 
Doings); 201-219 (Boston Massacre); 229-239 (The Tea Party, Lexing- 
ton); 239-250 (Bunker Hill, Siege of Boston); 259-272 (Independence). 
Eggleston's Household History, 148-158 (IIow the Colonies were Gov- 
erned). Lodge's Story of the Revolution, L, 25-96 (Lexington, Concord, 
Bunker Hill); i2i-i30(\Var in the South). Fiske's American Revolu- 
tion,!., 14-1O (England's Policy) ; 122-125 (Effect of Stamp Act) ; 93-117 
(The Intolerable Acts and The First Continental Congress); 120-127 
(Paul Revere and Lexington). Hart's J-'ormation of the Union, 44-46 
(England's Policy); 46-48 (Writs of Assistance); 48-58 (Stamp Act and 



Study Questions and Collateral Reading xxvii 

Pevenue Act) ; 59-60 (Coercive Acts) ; 60-63 (First Continental Congress, 
1774); 63-64 (Lexington); 73-74 (Second Continental Congress, 1775). 
Sloane's French War and the Reiiolation, 116-123, 124-125 (Writs of 
Assistance) ; 133-141 (Stamp Act) ; 168-177 (The Intolerable Acts and First 
Continental Congress); 179-202 (Conciliation Fails and War Begins). 
Bancroft's History of the United States, IV., 152-166 (Lexington and 
Concord). Cooke's Stories of the Old Dominion, 162-1 73 (Patrick Henry) ; 
173-179 ("Liberty or Death"); 193-204 (Leaders of the House of Bur- 
gesses); 205-218 (Virginia Overthrows the King's Authority). Coffin's 
Boys of '76, 17-41 (Lexington and Concord) ; 42-60 (Bunker Hill) ; 61-70 
(Driving the British out of Boston) ; 71-81 (The Invasion of Canada) ; 82-90 
(The Attack on Charleston) ; American Statesmen, Patrick Henry, 1287 
129 ; Samuel Adams, 21-23, 243-256. 

Sources : Old South Leaflets, Nos. 68 (Tea Party) and 3 (Declara- 
tion of Independence). Hart's Contemporaries, I., 381-382 (Franklin 
tells Parliament about Stamp Act) ; 397-399 (A Stamp Act Mob) ; 404-407 
(Pitt's Speech); 431-433 (Tea Party); II., 546-550 (Lexington and Con- 
cord); 5 50-5 54 (Mrs. Adams at the Front); 554-556 (Abandonment of New 
York, 1776) ; 562-565 (Battle of the Kegs). Mace's Working Manual, 
139-143 (Otis's Speech); 143-148 (Henry's Resolutions); 145-147 (Decla- 
ration of Rights); 157-160 (Tea Party); 160-163 (Port Bill); 163-166 
(Declaration of Rights) ; 166-171 (Address to People of Great Britain) ; 
172-174 (Suffolk County Resolutions) ; 175-178 (Sentiments from Congress 
of 1774); 181-184 (Chatham on Congress of 1774). 

Fiction and Poetry : Holmes' Ballad of the Boston Tea Party. 
Longfellow's Bajtl Revere' s Ride. Holmes' Grandtnother s Story of 
Bunker Hill Battle. Cooper's Lionel Lincoln. Bryant's Green Moun- 
tain Boys. Bryant's Seventy-Six. 

(211-214.) I. Prove that the colonists did not at first 
desire independence. 2. Make a list of immediate causes 
which turned their thoughts to separation, j. Which colonies 
were first and which last to favor separation from England ? 
4. Who told Richard Henry Lee to introduce his resolution ? 
Find out why it took nearly a month to get it through Con- 
gress. 5. Read the Declaration and point out its three great 
parts. 6. How long did the struggle for the "rights of 
Englishmen " last ? 7. Who were the Tories and what effect 
did they have on the war ? 

(215-231.) I. What great plan of campaign did the 
British decide on for 1776, and for what reasons? 2. What 
did Washington do to meet this new plan.? j. How much 
of General Howe's plan succeeded and how much failed? 
4.. Why did the people grow discouraged over this part of 
the campaign ? 5. What good reasons did the British have 
for believing the war was over after Washington crossed into 
Pennsylvania ? 6. Picture Washington's victory at Trenton. 

7. Explain the importance of the work of Robert Morris. 

8. Keep a list of the times and ways in which Washington 
surprised the British, p. Trace on a map the movements—. 



KKviii TJie Appendix 

British in red and Americans in blue pencil — made during 
1776. 10. By what steps did Howe reach Philadelphia? 
What other great campaign was going on at this time, and 
why did not Howe perform his part ? //. Draw a map of the 
region covered by all parts of Burgoyne's campaign. 12. 
Make a list of battles like Bennington, thus far won by the 
unexpected appearance of minutemen or militia, ij. Explain 
the part taken by General Schuyler, Benedict Arnold, and 
Daniel Morgan in this campaign. 14.. Make a list of the 
effects of Burgoyne's surrender, /j. Write a short biog- 
raphy of Benjamin Franklin, emphasizing his services to his 
country. 16. What reasons could people find for believing 
Gates a greater general than Washington ? ij. Make a list 
of foreigners who aided us and state what each did. 

(232-234.) /. Who settled in the valleys of the Allegheny 
Mountains, and what two new regions were they beginning 
to occupy at the opening of the war? 2. What important 
result did these settlers aid in bringing about ? j. What 
reasons were there for driving the British out of the Ohio 
Valley ? ^. Make a list of campaigns with larger armies 
whose results were less important than Clark's. 

(235-238.) /. What change in the character of the fight- 
ing in 1778 ? 2. Prove that Washington had always wanted 
to keep control of the Hudson, j. Explain Arnold's down- 
fall. How do Americans feel toward Arnold, and why ? ^. 
Why did America have no navy in the beginning of the 
war ? 5. What was the quickest way to get war vessels ? 6. 
Why are privateers not pirates ? 7. Picture Paul Jones' great 
sea fight. 

(239-249.) I. At what points had the British already 
attacked the South ? What encouraged them to try again ? 
2. What three great defeats did the Americans suffer in the 
South ? J. In what ways did the fighting of Marion's men 
differ from that of minutemen ? 4. What other battles does 
King's Mountain resemble? 5. Make a list of battles in 
which the British lost more than the Americans. How do 
you explain this ? 6. Whom did Washington send with 
Greene, and where have you heard of them before ? 7. Trace 
on a map the movement of both armies. 8. Why did not 
Cornwallis and Rawdon pursue Greene after each battle ? 
g. What was there about the American way of fighting which 
was hard for the British to understand ? 10. When Lafayette 
wrote to Washington that the British were in Yorktown, 
what did Washington discover? //. Give reasons why one 



Study Questions and Collateral Reading xxix 

army in our day could not march from West Point and sur- 
prise another in Yorktown. 12. Picture the scenes in Phila- 
delphia and the surrender scene. ij. Imagine yourself 
Cornwallis and tell your thoughts and feelings at the sur- 
render. Treat Lafayette and Washington in the same way. 
14. Make a list of the effects of the surrender, yj. Make a 
list of the times and circumstances between 1765 and 1783, 
when the Whigs of England aided the Americans and 
opposed George III. 16. Name nations concerned in the 
Treaty of 1783. ij. Compare the map showing the 
changes made by French and Indian war with map show- 
ing changes made by Revolutionary war. 

(250-251.) I. Picture the parting of Washington from 
his generals. 2. Imagine yourself present when Washington 
gave back to Congress his commission and describe your 
thoughts and feelings, j. What was unusual in this act of 
Washington ? What does it prove ? 

Histories : Fiske's American Revolution, I. , 191-197 (Independence); 
229-234 (Trenton and Princeton) ; 283-296 (Bennington and Oriskany) ; 
299-344 (Saratoga) ; II., 1-24 (Alliance with France) ; 83-93 (Tories and 
Indians, Western New York and Pennsylvania) ; 94-109 (Kentucky, 
Tennessee, and Vincennes); 116-130 (Paul Jones); 244-290 (From King's 
Mountain to Yorktown). Hart's Formation of the fjjiion, 77-80 (Inde- 
pendence); 82-85 (Campaigns of 1775-1778); 85-87 (Foreign Relations) ; 
87-89 (Close of the War). Roosevelt's Winning of the West, II., 1-12 
(War in the Northwest); 68-84 (Capture of Vincennes). Wright's Stories 
of American Progress, 1-40 (Western Settlements and Daniel Boone). 
Lodge's Story of the Revolution, 136-179 (Independence) ; 180-227 (Long 
Island, Trenton, Princeton) ; 228-278 (Oriskany, Bennington, Saratoga, 
and French Alliance); II., 1-82 (Winning the West); 82-121 (Greene's 
Campaign); 165-201 (Yorktown) ; 202-216 (Making the Treaty). Cooke's 
Stories of the Old Dominion, 245-256 (Clark and the Capture of Vin- 
cennes). Sloane's French War attd the Revolution, 312-322 (Charles- 
ton, Camden, and King's Mountain); 330-347 (Cdwpens to Yorktown). 
Statesmen Series: Franklin, 2-7 (Early Life); 228-232, 267-268(In France); 
Washington, II., 160-162 (Long Island). Creasy's Fifteen Decisive Bat- 
tles, 323-347 (Surrender of Burgoyne). Coffin's Boys of'jd, 91-107 (Battle 
of Long Island); 129-138 (Battle of Trenton); 139-151 (Battle of Princeton); 
152-165 (Burgoyne Begins His Invasion); 166-179 (Battle of Oriskany and 
the Death of Herkimer); 180-194 (Battle of Bennington); 195-203 (Brandy- 
wine); 204-214 (Battle of Stillwater); 231-244 (Saratoga and the Surrender 
of Burgoyne); 254-261 (Valley Forge). 

Sources: Hart's Source Book, 147-149 (Independence); 149-151 
(Princeton) ; 151-154 (A Southern Lady's War Experiences); 159-160 (Sur- 
render of Cornwallis). Hart's Contemporaries, II., 467-469 (Woman's 
Work); 474-476 (The Tories) ; 485-4S8 (Lafayette) ; 495-497 (Washington)* 
515-518 (Major Andre); 575-578 (War in New England, 1778); 582-585 
(Baron Steuben); 587-590 (Paul Jones); 606-609 (Madison's Account of the 
War); 609-612 (Southern Campaign); 615-618 (Surrender of Cornwallis); 
627-629 (Washington's Resignation). 



XXX The Appendix 

Fiction and Poetry : Churchill's Richard Car7<el. Cooper's Pilot. 
Thompson's Alice of Old Vincctifies. (Jeorgc Eggleston's Carolina 
Caz'alicr. Bryant's Song of Marion's Men. Sinims' T/ie Partisan. 
Kennedy's Horseshoe Robinson. Ogden's ./ Loyal Little Redcoat. 
Mitchell's ///^4'^// Wynne. Ford's fanice Meredith.' Henty's True to the 
Old Flag. Cooper's Spy. Jane Parker's Thaddeus of IVarsa^u (Kos- 
ciusko). Bryant's Green Mountain Boys and Battle of Bennington. 

(252-270.) /. How did the war with England force the 
colonies to unite ? Go back as far as you can and trace 
the steps of union between the colonies. 2. Why did the 
colonies find it easier to make the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence than the Articles of Confederation ? j. When did 
the Confederation become legally binding ? Why not 
before ? ^. Make a list of its weaknesses as a plan of 
government. 5. Why did the mass of people love their state 
governments and fear a strong central government .? 6. 
Make an outline or diagram of the ways in which the Con- 
federation helped to cure itself. 7. How did the public land 
system help hold the states together ? 8. Show the connec- 
tion between the work of Boone, Sevier, Robertson, and 
George Rogers Clark and the public land system, g. Who 
was the father of the idea that the Northwest Territory should 
be free ? 10. Prove that the Ordinance of 1787 was a famous 
document. //. Why did the people settling in this region 
have more affection for the national government than the 
people in the old states ? 12. Show how Maryland and Virginia 
led the way to the great convention of 1787. /?. What lesson 
was learned by these two states at the Annapolis meeting ? 
/^. What event frightened some of the states and Congress 
into favoring the convention ? 75. Write in your notebook the 
reasons why this was a "critical period." 16. Make a list of 
the members of the convention whose names you have met 
before and another of those you have not. ly. What does it 
prove that the convention decided to make a new Consti- 
tution? 18. What was the point of quarrel between the small 
and large states ? Explain the purpose and nature of the 
Connecticut Compromise, ig. State the conflicts over slavery 
and explain how each was settled. 20. State the points of 
resemblance and difference between the new Congress and 
the Congress of the Confederation. 21. What did the con- 
vention aim to do in making a President } How was it 
decided to elect him ? Why do some people think that they 
vote directly for President every four years ? 22. Prove 
that national courts were needed. 2?. Explain how the 
three departments work together. Does this make the 



Study Qucstiois and Collateral Reading xxxi 

g-overnment weaker or stronger than the Confederation ? 
Prove your answer. 24. Explain the two ways of amending 
the Constitution. 

Histories: Fiske's Critical Period of American History, 145-147 
(Commercial Strife in the Colonies); 216-217 (Annapolis Convention); 
222-306 (The Federal Convention) ; 309-315 (Struggle for Ratification in 
Pennsylvania). Hart's Fortnation of the (Jnion, 104-106, 117 (Weakness 
of the Union) ; 1 18-1 19 (Attempts to Strengthen the Government) ; 121 -128 
(Convention and its Difficulties); 128-133 (Ratification). American States- 
fnen Series: Hamilioii,b'i>--i% (New York and the Constitution) ; Patrick 
Henry, 266-300 (Opposed to the Convention and to the Constitution) ; 
fames Madison, 88-97 (The Convention), 98-114 (The Compromises), 
1 15-127 (The Virginia Ratifying Convention) ; Samuel Adams, 389-401 
(Ratifying in Massachusetts). Elson's Side Lights on American His- 
tory, I., 24-37 (Defects of the Confederation); 37-53 (Making the Con- 
stitution). 

Sources: Mace's Working Manual, 190-194 (Hamilton on the 
Defects of the Constitution) ; 195-197 (The Virginia Plan) ; 204-206 (The 
Connecticut Compromise); 211-216 (Sentiments from the Convention). 
Hart's Source Book, 164-166 (Life in Congress); 172-175 (Constitution 
Criticised) ; 175-178 (A Farmer's Argument for the Constitution) ; 178-180 
(The "New Roof"). American History Leaflets, No. 20 (Articles of 
Confederation); No. 8 (Old Text of the Constitution). Hart's Contem- 
poraries, II., 604 (On Articles of Confederation); III., 125-126 (Weak- 
ness of the Confederation); 1S5-187 (Annapolis Convention). Liberty 
Bell Leaflets, No. 9 (Ordinance of 1787). 

(271-278.) J. Name the states which have now a larger 
population than the United States in 1790. 2. Shut your 
eyes and picture the United States in 1789. What do you 
see? J. What was the most important occupation in 1789? 
4. Compare the ways of living and working with those of 
colonial times. Which do they most resemble, those of our 
times or those of colonial times ? 5. Make a list of the new 
things which were beginning in 1789. 6. Take a journey 
from Boston to Philadelphia and describe it fully. 7. How 
did the first settlers get to Ohio, and how did they get their 
products to the Atlantic cities ? 8. Make a list of the social 
changes produced by the Revolution. ^. How did the Revo- 
lution help or hinder education .? Religion and morals ? 10. 
What did people of both sections think of slavery in 1789? 
II. Why were the Quakers the strongest enemies of slavery 
then ? 12. Make a list of the results brought about by the 
invention of the cotton gin. 

(279-284.) I. What does the Constitution say about the 
election of Representatives ? Senators ? Presidential elec- 
tors ? 2. Why was there no campaigning when Washington 
was made President ? j. What is the difference between 
the way electors voted then and the way they vote now for 



xxxii The Appendix 

President ? 4.. Make a " continuous " picture of Washington's 
journey. 5. Who was the first president of the Senate and 
why? 6. Write a short sketch of Adams, Jefferson, and 
Hamilton. 7. Explain how a cabinet member gets his office. 
Read the Constitution for answers not found in the text. 
8. AVhat is a tax on foreign goods called, and what is its pur- 
pose ? g. Explain the nature and purpose of each of Ham- 
ilton's measures. 10. Make a list of the differences between 
the Federalists and the Republicans or Democrats. 11. What 
important question was raised by the whisky rebellion and 
how was it settled ? 12. Why did the region northwest of the 
Ohio fill up with settlers after the war with England? ij. 
Where have you met Wayne before, and why did the Indians 
fear him ? 

(285-291.) /. Which cabinet officer manages our foreign 
relations? 2. Why did the people sympathize more with 
France than with England? ?. Prove that Washington's 
proclamation was wise. 4.. What do j^ou conclude about 
party politics from the fact that Washington was accused of 
favoring a monarchy ? 5. What is the difference between 
making a law and making a treaty ? 6. Make a diagram of 
the events of Washington's administration, using " Home 
Events " and " Foreign Events " as the main headings. 7. 
Read Washington's farewell address. 8. Do the President 
and Vice-President belong to different parties now ? How 
could they then ? g. What inference from the fact that John 
Adams had but three more electoral votes than Jefferson ? 

(292-296.) /. What was the difference between the pur- 
pose and the result of the Alien and Sedition Laws ? 2. How 
do foreigners become citizens, and why did most of them 
join Jefferson's party? j. Remember the points in the 
Kentucky and Virginia resolutions. 4. What dangerous 
word did Kentucky use? 5. In what period were the states 
really judges whether they would obey the laws of Congress? 
Prove that the government did or did not work well then. 
6. Who is the real judge whether Congress violates the 
Constitution or not? 7. Prove that the Federalists caused 
their own defeat in 1800. 8. How did Jefferson and Burr 
tie ? Why could such a tie not occur now ? g. What is a 
Chief Justice? When and how was John Marshall made 
Chief Justice ? 

Histories: Hart's Formation of the Union, 103-104 (Condition of 
the Country); 113-115 (Slavery); 138-139 (The People in 1789); 146-151 
(Finances); 155-157 (Formation of Parties); 157-160. 166-168 (France); 
160-1O3 (Jay Treaty); 163-164 (Whisky Rebellion); 168-170 (Alien and 



Study Questions and Collateral Reading xxxiii 

Sedition Laws); 170-171 (Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions). Walker's 
Making of the Nation, (i\--i2, (The Country in 1790); 78-87 (Financial 
Measures); 88-100 (Starting the New Government); 1 14-123 (French 
Troubles); 136-168 ("X. Y. Z. Affair,"' Alien and Sedition Laws, r^'^~"'* 
Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions). McMaster's History o^--"' eop' 
of the United States, II., 1-25 (Social Conditions): "' ,rhe Banlc, 
Speculation, Indian Wars, and Politics); 135-142 '^'^r .^011 Troubles). (For 
X. Y. Z., Alien and Sedition Laws, Keii.tu^L^ and Virginia Resolutions, 
see index.) IVashiJigion and His ^cmtry, 500-506 ( Journey and Inaug- 
uration of Washington). A»\yzcan Statesmen Series: George Wash- 
ington, II., 42-45 ( Journc_, cO New York); 46 (The Inauguration). Side 
Lights on Amer^'cafz History, I., 54-64 (Election and Inauguration of 
Washington); 05-79 (Federalist Party and the Alien and Sedition Laws). 
Sources: Hart's 56) /^rr^ i5^<?y^, 166-168 (The West in 1788); 181-183 
(Washington as President). Hart's Contemporaries, 31-35 (Boston, 1788); 
35"39 (Philadelphia, 1788); 66-71 (Agriculture, etc., 1795). Mace's Work- 
ing Manual, 229-230 (Proclamation of Neutrality); 231-232 (Kentucky 
and Virginia Resolutions). Hart's Source Reader, No. 3, 45-96. (For 
social life and industry, read Nos. 15, 16, 17, 19, 21, 22, 24, 27, 30, 31, 32, 
33. 57. 60.) 

(297-302.) I. Prove that the Federalist criticisms of Jef- 
ferson were not all true. Prove that Jefferson agreed with 
Washington's idea of neutrality. 2. Make a list of the points 
of disagreement between Adams and Jefferson, j. Prove 
that the purchase of Louisiana was a great event. ./. How 
did the purchase show the inconsistency of both Jefferson 
and the Federalists? Which was right, and why? 5. What 
was the use of the expedition of Lewis and Clark? 6. 
Explain the relation between the steamboat and the pur- 
chase of Louisiana. 7, Resolved, that Jefferson deserved to 
be reelected in 1804. 

(303-313.) I. Explain why American trade and shipping 
grew so fast from 1800 to 1806. 2. Make a list of injuries to 
America by the war between France and England, j. 
Make a list of Jefferson's measures to prevent -war. /}.. 
Explain the causes and purpose of the embargo. Make a 
list of its effects. 5. Write a brief sketch of Madison's career 
to 1808. 6. How did Napoleon "fool" Madison, and what 
does it prove? 7. Name the leaders of the "war party." 
How did they differ from Jefferson and Madison? 8. What 
portion of the country wanted war ? Why ? Which opposed 
war? Why? p. What acts of Jefferson and Madison had 
made a successful war difficult ? 10. Make a list of America's 
advantages and disadvantages in a war with England. 

(314-322.) I. Explain the connection of the battle of 
Tippecanoe with the War of 181 2. 2. What was the plan of 
war on land for 181 2 ? j. What explanations did the English 
give for our naval victories f What explanation do you give ? 



xxxiv TJie Appendix 

/J.. Make a full, clear i)icture of at least one sea fig^ht. 5. 
Account for the i^oor success of the campaigns on land in the 
Eastern and Middle states. 6. Explain the successes of Har- 
rison and Jackson. 7. What event taught Madison the dan- 
ger of going to war unprepared ? 8. What permanent advan- 
tage did the United States or Canada gain by invading each 
other ? p. How do you account for the fact that the battle 
of New Orleans was fought after peace had been made ? 
Why is such a thing impossible now ? 

(323-326.) I. In what important resoluti'^ns are the doc- 
trines of strict construction, of the Constitution as a contract 
between the states, of state rights, and of nullification first 
stated ? Which party supported them ? Which called them 
dangerous? 2. When were the Federalists first defeated in a 
national election? Make a list of the events or measures 
opposed by them from 1800 to 1814. j. What were Federalist 
leaders accused of doing in the Hartford convention ? Who 
called their conduct dangerous? 4. Make a list of the meas- 
ures of the Republican party from 1800 to 1815. Which of 
these encouraged a stronger central government? 5. Which 
way did Madison generally read the Constitution in the War 
of 1812 ? Was this wise? Had he always read it so ? 6. Which 
do you think business men generally favored, the United 
States Bank or state banks ? Prove your answer. 7. Explain 
how the embargo and the war stimulated home manufactures. 
Why did England hasten goods to America when peace was 
made, and what was the effect? 8. What is a protective 
tariff? Who favored the tariff of 1816? Who opposed? 

Histories : Hart's Formation of the Union, 176-180 (Jefferson); 184- 
185 (Barbary Wars); 1S5-187 (Louisiana); 191 -195 (Trade Difficulties); 195- 
19S (Embargo and Repeal); 200-203 (Trade Difficulties continued); 203-206 
(War Party); 206-209 (Strength of Great Britain and the United States); 
20(j-2io, 212-214 (War "Q Land); 210-212 (Naval Warfare); 217-218 (Hart- 
ford Convention); 220-222 (Resultsof War). American Statesmen Series: 
Thomas Jefferson, 210-212 (Jefferson as President); Henry Clay, \., 
77-87 (Clay Urges War) ; James Madison, 32S-33o(The Capture of Wash- 
ington). Wrights' .SVt'r/^j 0/ American Progress, 104-120 (The First 
Steamboat); 121-129 (Battle of Tippecanoe); 130-144 (War of 1812). 
McMaster's History of the People, III., 53-75 (Aaron Burr); 240-246 
(Impressment of American Sailors); 257-269 (The "Chesapeake" 
Searched); 279-307 (The Embargo). IV. (See contents of chapters 
XXIV.-XXVIII. for topics on War of 1812). Roosevelt's Naval War of 
1812, 88-97 (The "Constitution" and the " Guerriere " ) ; 100-106 (The 
"Wasp" and the "Frolic"); 107-115 (The "United States" and the 
"Macedonia"); 119-138 (Tlie " Constitution" and the "Java"); 179- 
194 (The " Chesapeake " and the ' ' Shannon " ) ; 254-273 (Perry's Victory); 
375-399 (Macdonough's Victory). 



Stud}' Questions and Collateral Reading xxxv 

Sources: Hart's Source Book, 226-228 (Boston in 1806); 228-231 (Jef- 
ferson); 218-220 (Capture of Washington, 1814). Hart's Contemporaries, 
HI., 331-333 (Washington in 1800); 367-372 (Napoleon and Louisiana); 3S9- 
390 (A Search); 421-422 ("The Star-Spangled Banner"). Yi2st'^ Source 
Reader No. 3. (Read Nos. 62, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 89, 90, 92, 93.) Mace's 
Manual, 233-234 (Jefferson's First Inaugural); 235-237 (How the War 
of 1 812 Changed Clay's Views); 237-239 (Hartford Convention Views); 
240-241 (Monroe Doctrine). 

Fiction and Poetry: Hale's Man Without a Country. Holmes' 
Old Iro7isides. ^QwaXVs Little Jar vis. Eggleston's Captain Sam. 

(327-334.) /. Is Congress compelled to admit new states 
into the Union ? Prove by quoting the Constitution (Article 
IV., Section 3, paragraph i ). 2. How did the victories of Tip- 
pecanoe, the Thames, and Horseshoe Bend encourage western 
migration ? j. What two streams of settlers met and mingled 
in the Northwest Territory? ^. List the original thirteen 
states as free or slave. Add the new states, with their dates 
of admission, to the free or slave list. Why did Congress 
admit a free and a slave state at nearly the same time? 
5. Since the North did not oppose the admission of Alabama 
and other slave states, why did it oppose the admission of 
Missouri ? 6. Remember the terms of the " Missouri Compro- 
mise." Why did Henry Clay favor it so strongly? 7. When 
were the first compromises over slavery ? Were they looked 
upon as wise ? 8. How did the War of 1812 cause the demand 
for "internal improvements"? g. Make a list of the advan- 
tages of steamboats in that day. What has taken some of 
these advantages away in our day ? 10. How did the steam- 
boat influence Pittsburg ? What effect on eastern merchants 
did the steamboat from New Orleans have ? 11. Locate the 
Cumberland and the National roads, and explain their cause 
and effects. 12. Name advantages of the Erie Canal to the 
state of New York. To people in the Northwest, ij. Make 
a list of the advantages which steamboats, roads, and canals 
had in common. 14. What advantages did railroads have 
over canals ? Canals over railroads ? 

(335-342.) I. Make a list of the great writers of this 
period, and tell what each wrote. 2. How do such men 
benefit a nation? j. Point out the important words in the 
Monroe Doctrine. ^, What two Presidents had already 
declared that Arherica ought not to take part in European 
affairs? What more did Monroe declare ? 5. Is this doctrine 
alive to-day ? (jive proofs. 6. Prove that Monroe's time was 
an "era of good feeling." 7. Why were there so many can- 
didates in 1824? What was the result of the electoral vote? 
8. What other President had been elected as John Quincy 



xxxvi The Appendix 

Adams was? g. Why did the House not vote for Clay? 
(Constitution, Article XXI.) 

(343-355.) I. Compare the National Republicans and the 
old Federalists. Compare Jackson Democrats with Jefferson 
Republicans. 2. Contrast Jackson with John Quincy Adams. 
J. Why did the people love Jackson more than Adams ? 4. 
Why were the new states more democratic than the old ones ? 
How did their laws show this, and what effect did it produce 
on the old states ? What new idea of political equality re- 
sulted ? 5. Name the new methods of campaigning introduced 
by Jackson's supporters in 1828. 6. Describe the scenes at 
New Orleans. 7. What do you think of the conduct of Presi- 
dent Adams during this campaign ? 8. What good result do 
you think arose from the new campaign methods used ? How 
did the new campaigning show its effect at Jackson's inaug- 
uration? g. What is the "spoils system"? Explain how 
its introduction injured the government and lowered politi- 
cal morality ? jo. What were Jackson's reasons for destroy- 
ing the United States Bank ? 11. Who were the candidates 
for the Presidency in 1832 ? Why did Jackson defeat Clay so 
badly? 12. How did Jackson harm the people while trying 
to help them ? ij. When and by what party was Martin 
Van Buren elected President ? What new measure for tak- 
ing care of the government's money did he favor? 14. What 
effect did Van Buren's policy in regard to the financial dis- 
tress have upon the election of 1840? yj. Make a list of 
resemblances and another of differences between the cam- 
paigns of 1828 and 1840. 16. Make a list of the causes which 
made the people more democratic after 1800. 

Histories: Harts For?>iation of the Union, 233-234 (Territorial 
Extension) ; 236-241 (Missouri Compromise) ; 241-244 (^Ionroe Doctrine); 
246-251, 260-262 (Election, 1824). Wilson's Dhnsuni and Reunion, 17-18 
(Election of 1824); 19-21 (Jacksonian Democracy); 30-34 (Spoils System); 
88-94 (Pet Banks, Speculation, etc.). McMaster's History of the People, 
IV., 309 318 (The Second Bank) ; 319-320 (Tariff of 1816) ; 38'i-396 (Making 
New States); 397-422 (Internal Improvements). American Statesmen 
Series : James Monroe, 152-174 (l\Ionroe Doctrine); 182-1S4 (A White 
House Reception); John Quincy .Idanis, 130-138 (Monroe Doctrine); 
164-174 (Elected President by House of Representatives) ; 196-205 (Cam- 
paign of 1828); Henry Clay, I., 12S-140 (Tariff and Bank of 1816); 171- 
193 (Missouri Comjjromise); 221-235 (Campaign of 1824); 113-127 (Panic 
of 1837); 171-197 (Election of 1840). Wright's Stories of American 
Progress, 179-194 (The Railroad). 

Sources : Hart's Source Booh, 226-228 (Boston in 1806) ; 234-237 (Mis- 
souri Compromise); 237-240 (Life in Illinois in 1817) ; 240-241 (New Orleans 
in 1818). Hart's Contemporaries, HI., 452-454 (jefTerson's Views on the 
Missouri Question) ; 499-501 (Clay's Explanation of the Monroe Doctrine). 
531 535 (Spoils System). Mace's J/<i«««/, 242-245 (Jackson's Proclamation;. 



Study Questions and Collateral Reading xxxvii 

(356-360.) /. Compare the area, population, and size of 
cities in 1800 and i860. 2. Compare European settlers of 
colonial times with those of this period, j. Why did new- 
states come in more slowly after Missouri ? 4. Why have 
the Mormons been unpopular? 5. When and why did the 
South lose equal power in the Senate, and what were the 
results? 

(361-370.) /. Prove that the period from 1840 to i860 was 
one of religious and moral improvement. 2. Tell how for- 
eign children are made into good American citizens. 3. 
How did the National Government encourage free schools ? 
4.. Make a list of the educational influences of the period. 
5. Make a list of the inventions belonging to this age. 6. 
Point out the steps between a hand sickle and a McCormick 
reaper. Between a flail and a "separator." Explain what 
the advance from one to the other means. 7. Point out the 
steps in the growth of manufacturing. 

(371-376.) /. Trace the railroad route from Boston to 
Buffalo in 1842. How did people travel from Buffalo to 
Chicago in that year? 2. When was New York City first 
connected with St. Louis by rail ? j. How did the mer- 
chants of St. Louis reach Pittsburg before 1857? 4. Prove 
that the use of steamships. Perry's expedition, the invention 
of the telegraph, and the Atlantic cable produced similar 
results. 5. Make a list of things in which the North excelled 
the South. Another in which the South excelled the North. 
How do you explain the diff"erence in each case? 

Histories : Wright's Industrial Evolution of the United States, 
132-135 (Cotton Industry) ; 135-138 (Iron Industry) ; 138-140 (Distribution 
and Value of Manufactures); 144-152 (Industrial Difference Between 
the North and South). Andrews' History of the Lhiited States, II., 
66-74 (Material Progress). Ingle's Southern Side-Lights, 10-20 (Popu- 
lation) ; 47-66 (Plantations and Farms); 176-195 (Education); 298-339 
(The Crisis). 

Sources: Hart's Contemporaries, III., 161-163 (First American 
Steam Railroad); 164-571 (Travel); 571-573 (First Telegraph). Hart's 
Source Book, 231-234 (Religious Life in the West). Hart's Source 
Reader, No. 3, 334-370 (At School). 

(377-382.) /. Make a list of differences between the 
North and the South, as to climate, occupations, products, 
and population. 2. Prove that the first protective tariff' was 
not a sectional measure. What resemblance do 5^ou see in 
the tariff views of Calhoun and Webster ? j. Where did 
Calhoun find the principles on which South Carolina opposed 
the tariff? 4. What connection did the Webster-Hayne 



xxxviii Tlic Appendix 

debate have with the opposition to the tariff ? 5. Since 
Jackson and Calhoun agreed in regard to the tariff, why 
should they differ in regard to nullification ? 6. State the 
acts of the nullifiers between 1828 and 1833. 7. Prove that 
Clay, a high protectionist, was wise in introducing the " com- 
promise tariff." 8. What was the true cause of the trouble 
over the tariff ? 

(383-386.) /. What was the difference between the 
Quakers and Garrison in their opposition to slavery ? 2. 
When, where, and by whom was the first national anti- 
slavery party formed ? j. Explain the conduct of both the 
North and the South toward the abolitionists. 4. What does 
the Constitution say about the right of petition (Amend- 
ment I.) ? 5. What does it mean that the South wanted peti- 
tions in regard to slavery to cease ? 6. Write the story of 
the life of John Quincy Adams. 7. Explain the origin of 
the Liberty party. Why did its vote increase tenfold from 
1840 to 1844? 

(387-393.) /. Why did the South want Texas ? 2. How 
did the Americans in Texas get into trouble with Mexico, 
and in what ways did citizens of the United States aid them 
in the war? What does this prove? j. What was the 
decisive battle of the Texan Revolution ? 4.. What were the 
campaign cries of 1844, and who were the candidates? Why 
was Van Buren not a candidate ? 5. Explain how Clay lost 
New York and the Presidency. 6. State the immediate 
cause of the war with Mexico. Was or was not this the 
true cause ? Why ? 7. Who opposed the war, and why ? 8. 
Make a list of Taylor's victories. What was their political 
effect ? g. State steps by which California and New Mexico 
fell into our hands. Make a list of Scott's victories. 

(394-398.) I. Name the leading points in the treaty of 
Guadalupe Hidalgo. 2. Explain the origin and the purpose 
of the Wilmot Proviso. 3. What position did the old parties 
take on the slavery question in 1848, and what did this have 
to do with the formation of the Free Soil party? 4. What 
reason can you see for Van Buren's nomination by this 
party ? 5. Explain the steps by which California became a 
free state. How do you explain the fact that most of the 
emigrants to California were from the North ? 

(399.406.) 1. What was Clay's grcal purpose in presenting 
his compromise to Congress? Make a list of former com- 
promises. What was Clay's part in each case? 2. Picture 
the Senate during the great debates. What conclusion can 



Study Questions and Collateral Rending xxxix 

you draw? j. Tell the points of agreement and of differ- 
ence in the three great speeches. 4. What title did Webster 
give his speech ? What was the feeling of New Kngland 
over this speech? Why? 5. Who was the author of the 
** higher law " doctrine, and what did it mean ? 6. How did 
the people receive the compromise ? What do you infer 
from the fact that " Union meetings " were held ? 7. What 
was the "Underground Railroad"? Explain its workings. 
8. How did persons justify the violation of the fugitive slave 
law ? How did the slaveholder look upon this violation ? 
g. If you had read Uncle Tool's Cabin, and believed it, tell 
what you would have wanted to do in 1852. jo. If you 
have read a pro-slavery book, tell what it said. 11. Why 
did northern writers find it diflticult to see any good in 
slavery ? Why did southern writers find it difficult to see 
the harm of slavery ? 

Histories: "Wilson's Division and Reunion, 11 7-1 32 (Beginnings 
of the Conflict Over Slavery); 141-152 (Texas and the Mexican War); 
152-154 (Wilmot Proviso); 169-173 (Compromise of 1850); 178-180 (Cam- 
paign of 1852). American Statesmen Series : Daniel Webster, 154-171 
(Tariff of 1828^; 172-184 (Reply to Hayne) ; Henry Clay, II.. 1-22 
(Nullification and the Compromise of 1833); 69-94 (Slavery, Right of 
Petition, and Annexation of Texas); 315-335 (Compromise of 1850). 
Grant's Meinoirs, I., 92-106 (Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma) ; 107-118 
(Monterey); ii9-i28(VeraCruz) ; 129-139 (Cerro Gordo) ; 140- 161 (Advance 
on City of Mexico); 162-174 (Capture of Mexico). Wright's Stories of 
American Progress, '2\\-'ii,-i (Annexation of Texas). Elson's Side 
Lights on American History, I., 241-262 (Discovery of Gold in Cali- 
iornia) ; 263-293 (Fugitive Slave Law and the Underground Railroad). 

Sources: Hart's Source Book, 248-251 (Anti-Abolitionist Mob); 
251-254 (Slave Trade); 255-257 (A Slave's Story); 260-263 (A. Fugitive 
Slave); 276-279 (At the Gold Fields). Hart's Contemporaries, III., 
579-583 (A Slave Breaker); 591-594 (Slavery at Its Best); 612-614 (Whit- 
tier's Anti-Slavery Poem); 615-618 (A Slave Ship); IV., 75-79 (Slave 
Auction) ; 80-83 (Underground Railroad). Mace's Manual, 248-249 
(Wilmot Proviso and Free Soil Platform of 1848); 250-251 (Henry Clay 
on Compromise of 1850). 

Fiction and Poetry : Lowell's Big low Pat>ers. Whittier's Angels 
of Buena Vista. Monroe's Golden Days of ' ^g. Butterworth's Log 
Schoolhouse. Smead's Meuiorials of a Sout/iern Planter. 

(407-414.) I. Compare the Kansas-Nebraska Bill with 
the Missouri Compromise. 2. What were the immediate and 
also the remote effects of this bill ? 3. Why was it easier 
for the North to send voters to Kansas than for the South ? 
What other similar contest ended in a similar way ? ./. What 
part did the citizens of western Missouri take in the dis- 
pute, and why ? 5. What was the situation after the Topeka 
Constitution was made ? 6. What did Sumner mean by the 



xl TJic Appendix 

"Crime apfainst Kansas" ? What did Brooks' attack on Sum- 
ner mean? Why did Massachusetts drape Sumner's seat in 
mourning ? y. Why did Douglas oppose the Lecompton Con- 
stitution ? 8. What was the meaning of the Presidential 
vote in 1856? g. Explain the effect of the Dred Scott decision. 

(415-420.) I. Read Lincoln's speech at Springfield and 
the answer of Douglas. 2. Visit, in imagination, one of the 
"joint debates" and describe what you see and hear. j. 
Why could not Douglas please the Democrats of Illinois and 
of the South at the same time? /}.. What did Lincoln gain 
from these debates ? 5. What conclusions can you draw 
from John Brown's raid ? Read his last speech. 6. Show 
how the debates between Lincoln and Douglas influenced 
the Charleston convention. 7. Why did Southern Democrats 
feel they could not support Douglas? Why could not North- 
ern Democrats support the soutliern view? 8. Why was 
Lincoln nominated by the Republicans? g. Compare Re- 
publican with Free Soil platforms of 1848. 10. What was 
the immediate effect of Lincoln's election? 

(421-428.) I. Why did some people in the seceding states 
still stand by the Union ? 2. What two events immediately 
following secession looked like war ? j. Compare Buchanan 
and Jackson. Read Davis' farewell speech in the Senate. 
/}.. If neither section wanted war, why did all efforts at com- 
promise fail ? Why did the seceding states send no dele- 
gates to the Peace Convention ? 5. Read Lincoln's maugural 
address, and state just what he said about Union and slavery. 
6. Which did Lincoln care for most, the preservation of the 
Union or the destruction of slavery ? Prove your answer. 

Histories: Wilson's Division and Relation, 182-185 (Repeal of Mis- 
souri Compromise) ; 185-187, 199-200 (Kansas Struggle) ; 187-188 (Repub- 
lican Party); 190-193 (Campaign of 1856); 197-199 (Dred Scott Case); 
201-202 (Lincoln-Douglas Debate) ; 202-204 (John Brown's Raid) ; 204- 
212 (Campaign of i860 and Secession). American Slatesmen Series: 
Abraham Lincoln, I.. 166-179 (Election of i860); 180-228 (Secession, 
Compromise, Inauguration). Elson's Side Lights on American History, 
I., 294-309 (Kansas-Nebraska Bill); 3x0-336 (Lincoln-Douglas Debates); 
IL, 1-24 (Election of i860) ; 40-46 (Secession of South Carolina). 

Sources : Hart's Source Book, 284-287 (Benton's Speech on Kansas- 
Nebraska Bill); 287-289 (Trouble in Kansas); 290-291 (Justice McLean 
against Dred Scott Decision) ; 294-296 (John Brown's Last Speech). 
Hart's Contemporaries, IV., 104-108 (Free Soil Emigration to Kansas); 
io8-iio(Call to Kansas); ii4-ii8(Civil War in Kansas) ; i55-i59(Lincoln's 
Nomination) ; 180-182 (Secession in Mississippi) ; 182-186 (Crisis in South 
Carolina). Mace's Working Manual, 252-254(The Irrepressible Conflict); 
255-256 (Lincoln's Questions and Douglas' An.swer); 257-261 (Sentiments 
from the Charleston Convention) ; 267-270 (Lincoln's First Inaugural). 



Study Questions and Collateral Reading xll 

(429-436.) I. Imagine yourself in Charleston duringf the 
attack on Fort Sumter, and tell what you saw and heard. 
2. Describe your experiences as one of Anderson's men. j. 
Make a list of the effects of the attack on Fort Sumter. 
4. Why did the border slave states not secede? What par- 
ticular danger to the Union would have followed the seces- 
sion of Maryland ? j". Why was Washington from its location 
more in danger than Richmond ? 6. What good caine to the 
North from the battle of Bull Run ? What harm to the 
South ? 7. What work of great value did McClellan do 
immediately after Bull Run ? 

(437-442.) I. Why did both sections expect aid from 
England, and how was each disappointed ? 2. Why were 
there few great battles on the ocean during the war, and 
what was the main work of the navy ? j. Explain the ways 
in which the blockade injured the South. 4. Find reasons in 
favor of giving up Mason and Slidell. 5. Make a list of the 
effects of the " Monitor-Merrimac " battle. What would prob- 
ably have happened if the " Merrimac " had won? 

(443-449.) I. Why were Lincoln and Davis both anxious 
to get possession of the border slave states ? Who were the 
Union leaders in Missouri ? 2. Draw on the map a line through 
the places held by the Confederates in the border states. 
J. Explain the importance of the capture of Fort Donelson. 
4. What was the purpose of the Union troops after this vic- 
tory? Make a list of events aiding in this purpose. 5. Prove 
that the capture of New Orleans was a very important event. 
6. Keep a list of important events of the war. 7. What was 
the purpose and what were the results of Bragg's invasion ? 
8. What great battle at the close of 1862? 

(450-454.) I. What great events had taken place in the 
East while Grant was moving from Fort Donelson to Pitts- 
burg Landing, and Buell and Rosecrans were driving Bragg ? 
2. State the steps in the Peninsula campaign, j. Why did 
McDowell not join McClellan ? What changes in the army 
resulted from the failure of this campaign ? 4. How did the 
marching an^ fighting of Lee and Jackson differ from that of 
McClellan? 5. In what respect did Lee's and Bragg's inva- 
sions resemble each other? 

(455-456.) I. Why did Lincoln and Congress change their 
minds about slavery? 2. Prove that the negro was being 
used against the Union, j. What did the border slave states 
do with Lincoln's plan of freeing their slaves? Prove that 
they acted unwisely, 4. Explain how the battle of Antietam 



xlii TJie Appendix 

is connected with emancipation. 5. What slave states were 
not included in the proclamation ? 6. How did Lincoln jus- 
tify this proclamation, since he had said in his inaugural 
address that he had no purpose to interfere with slavery in 
any of the states ? 

(457-460.) /. Why was Bumside given McClellan's place, 
and what was the result ? 2. What defeat did Hooker suffer? 
What disaster did the Confederates suffer in this battle ? 
J. Make a list of the great defeats of the Union forces in the 
East during the war. 4. What reasons probably led Lee to 
make his second invasion ? j. Why is Gettysburg called a 
decisive battle ? 

(461-464.) I. What events before the battle of Corinth 
helped toward the opening of the Mississippi.? Name the 
obstacles in the way of such an undertaking. 2. Outline the 
steps in the campaign against Vicksburg. j. What other 
events do you rank in importance with the fall of Vicksburg? 
4. Prove that both the North and the South looked upon the 
struggle between Rosecransand Bragg as important. 5. Climb 
Lookout Mountain with Hooker and tell what you saw and 
heard. 6. Why were the people of East Tennessee loyal? 

(465-467.) /. What questions divided the " war party " ? 
2. Who were the "War Democrats" and who were the 
" Peace Democrats " ? 3. What was meant by the campaign 
cry, " The Constitution as it is and the Union as it was " ? 
4. On what points did Peace Democrats and Radical Repub- 
licans agree and on what points differ ? j. Make a list of the 
ways the war was opposed at the North. 6. Who was Fre- 
mont and why should he be a candidate for the Presidency ? 
7. What reasons could have been urged in favor of McClellan 
for the Presidency ? 8. Make a list of reasons why you think 
Lincoln received so large a majority. 

(468-480.) I. Outline the career of Grant till he was 
made Lieutenant-General. Who were his great under offi- 
cers ? 2. What does it mean that Grant and Sherman began 
to move at the same time? j. Read somewhere a "picture" 
of the battle of the Wilderness. 4. What was the meaning 
of the loss of men to Lee ? 5. Compare Early's raid with 
Stonewall Jackson's as to purpose and results. 6. Read 
Thomas Buchanan K^ixd's Sheridan's Rjde. 7. Make a list of 
the events which occurred in Georgia while Grant was moving 
against Richmond. <?. Show how the work of Sherman and 
Farragut bore on the fate of Lee's army (Hart's Cotit.. IV., 
418). g. Tell the story of the "Alabama." lo. State purpose 



Study Qucstiotis and Collateral Reading xliii 

of the "march to the sea." ii. What other events produced 
a similar effect ? 12. March with Sherman and tell what he 
saw and heard, ij. What disaster befell the Confederacy at 
Nashville ? 14. How could Sherman march six hundred 
miles through the heart of the Confederacy without fighting 
a battle? (Hart's Cont., IV., 428-436.) i^. Trace Lee from 
Petersburg to Appomattox. 16. Picture Lincoln's visit to 
Richmond. 17. Grant's story of the surrender is in Hart's 
Cont., IV., 437-440 ; Source Book, 329. 18. Picture the Grand 
Review, ig. What friendly face did the soldiers miss at the 
Grand Review ? 

(481-487.) /. Explain why more men in war die from 
other causes than from being shot. 2. What means were 
used in the Civil War to lessen suffering and save life ? j. 
Why did loss of life affect the South more than the North ? 
4. Make a list of all the ways in which the South suffered 
more than the North, and give the reason in each case. 5. 
"Picture" a ruined plantation at the close of the war. 6. 
Make a list of war scenes in the North. 7. Prove that the 
war was financially beneficial to the farmer and the manu- 
facturer. S. Make a list of the different ways in which the 
war cost money, p. In how many ways did the government 
obtain money ? 10. What is the difference between getting 
money by a tax and getting it by bonds ? 11. How did 
" bonds " resemble " greenbacks " ? 12. How differ ? ij. What 
kinds of paper money have you seen, and why is paper money 
worth more now than in 1865? 14. How were bonds used in 
establishing banks ? 

Histories : Wilson's Division and Reunion, 213-221 (Preparation for 
War) ; 222-224 (Trent Affair, Military Events of 1862) ; '22-1-11^ (Emancipa- 
tion and Radical Measures); 229-232 (The Blockade, Military Events of 
1863); 232-238 (National Banks, Military and Political Events of 1864); 244- 
252 (Southern Resources, Money, and Government). American States- 
men Series: Abraham Lincoln, I., 248-262 (The Rising in the North); 
262-272 (Other States Secede, Border Slave States Adhere to the Union); 
368-387 (Foreign Nations and the War); II., 1-30 (Slavery and the Border 
States); 95-133 (Emancipation, Elections in 1862); Seiuard, 320-325 
(Trent Affair); 363-367 (Emancipation). Fiske's Miisissippi Valley in 
the Civil War, 1-5 (Border States); 52-66 (Grant and Donelson). Grant's 
Memoirs, I., 294-315 (Donelson); 353-356 (Shiloh); 437-584 (Vicksburg); 
II., 31-38 (Chattanooga) ; 158-307 (Atlanta, From the Wilderness to Peters- 
burg); 344-386 (March to the Sea); 454-512 (Fall of Richmond, Surren- 
der of Lee). Coffin's Drum- Be at of the Nation, 48-103 (The Rising, 
Preparation for War, Bull Run); 105-107 (English Opinion); 165-172 
("Monitor" and "Merrimac"); 128-158 (Kentucky, Forts Henry and 
Donelson) ; 196-235 (Shiloh, New Orleans, Memphis); 334-364 (Bragg's 
Invasion); 415-442 (Murfreesboro) ; 236-333 (Peninsula Campaign, Second 



xliv The Appendix 

Bull Run, Invasion of Marj'land, Antietam) ; 364-414 (Blows at Slavery, 
Fredericksburg). Coffin's Marc/iittf;- to Victory, 16-36 (Europe and the 
War); 1 14-124 (Cotton Famine in England); 127-282 (Chancellorsville and 
Gettysburg); 283-315 (Vicksburg); 333-350 (Fort Wagner); 365-384 (Union- 
ists of East Tennessee); 401-455 (From Chickamauga to Missionary 
Ridge). Coffin's Rtdeeming the Republic, 67-312 (The Wilderness, 
Cold Harbor, Chattanooga, Kennesaw McJuntain, Raidin^^ the Shenan- 
doah, Capture of the "Alabama"); 335-426 (Atlanta, Mobile Bay); i-io, 
464-468 (Inside the Confederacy); 439-453 (Politics in 1864). Coffin's 
Freedom Triumphant , 79-160 (March to the Sea, Battles of Franklin and 
Nashville); 415-444 (Last Days of the Confederacy); 327-338 (Shall the 
Confederacy Arm the Negroes?); 454-470 (Surrender of Lee and Johns- 
ton); 471-486 (Death of Lincoln). 

Sources: Hart's Source Book, 299-312 (Fort Sumter, Rousing the 
North, Bull Run, The Southern Soldier, Caring for the Wounded); 
315-327 (Story of Emancipation, Cave Life in Vicksburg, Gettysburg); 
329-339 (Lee's Surrender, Lincoln, Condition of the South). Hart's 
Contemporaries, IV., 216-224 (Fort Sumter) ; 244-247 (Life of a Southern 
Lady, 1862-1865) ; 259-263, 277-280 (War Songs) ; 2S0-282 (Horrors). 

(488-495.) /. What were some of the political results of 
the war ? 2. What hard questions faced the government ? 
J. What does Lincoln's " Amnesty Proclamation " prove ? 
4. What promises did the people of the Confederate States 
have to make ? 5. Prove that Congress did or did not agree 
with Lincoln's plan for reorganizing the states. 6. Which 
Vice-Presidents became Presidents by the death of the 
President? 7. What did Johnson do toward reconstruction 
before Congress met? <?. Read the Thirteenth Amendment 
and compare it with the sixth article of the Ordinance of 
1787, with the Wilmot Proviso, and the Emancipation Proc- 
lamation, g. Trace, step by step, the origin of the quarrel 
between the President and Congress. 10. What is the 
difference between the Thirteenth and Fourteenth amend- 
ments ? II. In what ways did Congress try to punish the 
President ? 12. Under the plan of Congress what must the 
people of a state do to get back into the Union? How did 
this differ from Lincoln's plan ? ij. Attend the impeach- 
ment trial and tell what you see and hear. 14. Read Con- 
stitution, Article L, Section 3, paragraphs 6 and 7. 

(496-504.) I. Explain how some of the reconstructed 
states fell into the hands of the negroes. 2. What aroused 
the ill-feeling of the South toward the Carpetbagger ? j. 
" Picture " a Southern Legislature as ruled by the negroes. 
4. Explain by what means the Ku Klux terriiied the negro. 
J. What purpose did the Fifteenth Amendment and the Force 
Bills have in common ? 6. What Act tended to bring about 
a better feeling in the South ? 7. How could the United 



Study Questions and Collateral Reading xlv 

States justify her opposition to Maximflian? 8. State the 
purpose, work, and result of the Geneva Tribunal. 

Histories: Wilson's Division and Reunion, 254-257 (Problem of 
Reconstruction); 257-259 (Johnson's Plan of Reconstruction) ; 259-260 
(Thirteenth Amendment) ; ib\-2bi, 265-270 (Congressional Reconstruc- 
tion) ; 263-264 (President vs. Congress) , 270-271 (Impeachment) ; 2-]i-2i2 
(Presidential Election of 1868) ; 272 (Affairs in Mexico). Andrews' 
Last Quarter of a Century, I., 1 16-124 (Carpetbag Rule in the South). 
Elson's Side Lights on American History, II., 148-160 (Lincoln's Views 
of Reconstruction) ; 160-182 (Reconstruction by Congress) ; 182-214 (Im- 
peachment of Johnson). 

Sources: Hart's Source Book, 336-339 (Conditions in the South 
— 1865) ; 339-342 (A Negro School) ; 342-344 (A Southerner's Advice on 
Reconstruction) ; 344-351 (Reconstruction by Congress and its Failure). 

Fiction : Tourgee's A FooVs Errufid and Bricks Without Straw. 

(505-515.) I- Make a list of the great financial panics 
before 1873. 2. Enumerate causes of the panic of 1873. j. 
What is the meaning of the scenes in Wall Street ? 4. Prove 
that wage-earners suffer most in a panic. 5. Make a list of 
causes of the Democratic victory in 1874. 6. Explain how 
the dispute over the election in 1876 arose and how it was 
settled. 7. Prove that President Hayes was a man of cour- 
age. <?. Prove that the removal of troops from the South 
was wise. g. What was the Bland measure and why was 
the silver in a dollar worth less than the gold in a dollar? 
10. Why did paying gold for greenbacks help the credit of 
the country? 

(516-521.) I. Why are Presidents not nominated for 
third terms ? 2. Make a list of the candidates in 1880. j. What 
Presidents before Garfield had favored " civil-service reform " ? 
4. What was the nature and purpose of the Pendleton Law ? 
Prove that this is a wise law. 5. Account for the election of 
Cleveland. 6. Who would become President if both Presi- 
dent and Vice-President should die in office ? 7. What 
events made Congress see the necessity of a law providing 
for the " Presidential succession " ? <?. On what other occa- 
sions has the " Chinese question " arisen ? g. Who imported 
foreign laborers and why ? 

(522-528.) I. Make a list of the measures passed after the 
election of 1888. How did they influence the election of 
Representatives in 1890? 2. Explain the rise of the Farmers' 
Alliance and the People's party, j. Which points in their 
platform are new ? 4. How do you explain the second elec- 
tion of Cleveland? j. Add the panic of 1893 to your list of 
panics. 6. What causes decreased the gold in the Treasury ? 
Why should this frighten business men ? 7. How did parties 
33 



xlvi The Appendix 

divide on the repeal of the Sherman Act? Explain this 
" split." 8. State the nature and purpose of the Wilson Bill. 
(529-530.) /. Why did President Cleveland refuse to annex 
Hawaii ? 2. Explain how the dispute between Venezuela 
and Great Britain threatened to violate the Monroe Doctrine. 
J. What is meant by settling disputes by arbitration ? What 
other examples of arbitration ? 4. What was the main ques- 
tion in the campaign of 1896 ? 5. How did the parties split 
on this question ? 6. What signs of split before 1896 ? 7. Com- 
pare the Dingley Law with the McKinley and Wilson laws. 

Histories : Wilson's Division and Reunion. Andrews' Last Quar- 
ter of a Century. 

(531-534.) I. Make a list of the effects of the discovery 
of gold and silver in the West. 2. What means of commu- 
nication with the Pacific before a Pacific railroad was built ? 
3. In what period of our history were these the only means 
of rapid communication? 4. Make a list of the effects of a 
Pacific railroad. 5. What effect did the Homestead Law 
have in common with the discovery of gold and silver and 
the building of railroads? 6. Make a list of the results of 
the second discovery of gold and silver in the West. 

(535-539.) I. Describe the steps in making a town. 2. 
Give the points of difference between a large prairie farm in 
Dakota and the ordinary farm in the older states, j. Name 
the steps in the growth of the milling industry. 4. How 
have the great wheat farms and flouring mills affected the 
farmers to the eastward ? 5. Ask your grandfather about 
the old-time grist and saw mills. 6. Where did George 
Washington get his beef? Where do you get yours? 7, 
Prove that the old ways of farming, milling, meat-raising, 
and mining were or were not better than the new. 

(540-542.) I. Explain the causes of the Modoc and Sioux 
wars. 2. What difference in the Indian way of fighting Cus- 
ter and of fighting Harrison at Tippecanoe, and what does it 
mean ? j. What is the meaning of the rush of population 
into Indian reservations ? 4. What will it mean when all the 
valuable "government land" is taken up? 

(543-550.) /. Explain why free labor produces more 
farm products for the South than slave labor did. 2. Make 
a list of occupations prominent in the South since i860, j. 
What have been their effects upon the South ? What do you 
infer will be their effect upon the North ? 4. Make a list of 
the mining and manufacturing centers of the whole country. 



Study Questions and Collateral Reading xlvii 

5. What do you infer from the fact that South Carolina will 
probably have, in a few years, as many cotton factories as 
Massachusetts ? 6. Why were many railroads built in the 
South after 1865 ? Make a list of their effects. 7. In what 
points did Texas profit from the new Northwest and the new 
South ? <?. How did the war make it hard for the South to 
educate her children ? g. Who aided in the education of the 
South ? 10. What useful effects did the Southern Exposi- 
tions have on the South ? On the North ? 

(551-554.) I. If you know persons now living who were 
born before steam was widely used, ask them to tell you 
what was used in its place. 2. Tell the differences between 
one of Columbus' vessels and a modern steamship, j. Be- 
tween the first American railroad train and a train of Pull- 
man cars. 4. Make a list of the things in which electricity is 
taking the place of steam, j. Make a list of the different 
ways of lighting buildings, beginning with colonial times. 6. 
Make a list of inventions which your grandfather knew noth- 
ing about when he was a boy. Ask him how they got on 
without them. 7. Ask your grandmother to tell you the dif- 
ference between housekeeping now and when she was a girl. 

(555-560.) I. What things were necessary before "trusts" 
could be formed ? 2. Resolved, That large business compa- 
nies are or are not beneficial to a nation, j. What things 
were necessary before national labor organizations could be 
formed.? 4. Resolved, That labor organizations are or are 
not beneficial to a nation. 5. What is a "strike".? Discuss its 
purposes. 6. In what ways are strikes settled.? 

(561-564.) /. How do inventions and labor disputes help 
to make people wiser? 2. What was the use of celebrating 
the centennial of Revolutionary events? j. What have been 
the two greatest centennial exhibitions in the United States? 
State the purpose of each. ^. State purpose of the fairs held 
at Omaha, Buffalo, and Atlanta? 5. What kinds of schools 
of higher learning grew up in this period ? 6. Learn what 
you can about Horace Mann. 7. Who besides the states have 
established colleges and universities, and what does it mean? 
8. What means are now used to encourage people to study 
after school days? g. Find out the difference between news- 
papers now and one hundred years ago. 

(565-572-) ^- Why did Americans dislike Spanish ways? 
2. To what race did the Cubans belong? j. Make list of 

Histories: Wilson's Division and Reunion. Andrews' Last 
Quarter. 



xUiii The Appiiidix 

causes for Cuban wars against Spanish authority. 4. Which 
was the great cause of the Spanish-American War? 5. Why- 
did news of Dewey's victory excite European nations? 6. 
Discuss its claim as being the most important event of the 
war. 7. Ask some soldier who fought in Cuba to tell you 
of his experiences. 8. Describe the destruction of Cen^era's 
fleet. <?. Why were some Americans opposed to the treaty 
with Spain? 10. Discuss the right of the United States 
to govern the Philippines. 11. How does the government 
of colonies add to our national expenses? 12. How may 
colonies help repay the cost of government? 7j. Why did 
foreigners generally sympathize with Spair ? 

(573-642.) I. To what race do the F'ilipinos belong? 2. 
What was the 'cause of the insurrection? j. Why did not 
our government grant their demand for independence? 4. 
What form of government has been established in the 
islands? 5. Describe the Boxer uprising in China. 6. What 
were the principal issues in the campaign of 1900? 7. Name 
our three martyr Presidents. 8. What motives led to their 
assassination? g. What was the significance of the with- 
drawal of United States authority from Cuba? 10. What 
are the relations between the United States and the Philip- 
pines and Porto Rico? 11. Describe the methods by which 
the Panama Canal Zone was gained. 12. W^hat benefits does 
the United States derive from this canal? Other nations? ij. 
What was the decision in the Alaskan boundary dispute? 
14. Make a list of great expositions held in the United 
States, giving time, place, and purpose of each. 75. Read 
the story of the Lewis and Clark Expedition (§301). 16. 
What number is Oklahoma among the states of the Nation? 
ly. In what respect did the Jamestown Exposition differ 
from all others? 18. What is the purpose of the United 
States in dealing with our Insular Possessions? ig. What 
can you tell of the peace conferences at The Hague? 20. 
Describe some effects of the reckless use of a country's 
natural resources. 21. Go with the fleet around the world 
and tell some of your experiences. 22. Describe the inven- 
tions for the conquest of the air. 2?. Distinguish between 
the recent North and South Polar Explorations. 24. Dis- 
cuss the admittance into the Union of Arizona and New 
Mexico. 25. State leading facts in the campaign of 19 12. 
26. Discuss the special .session of Congress; the important 
political events of 19 13. 27. Explain the direct primary 
election; initiative and referendmn; commission form of 
government for cities. 28. Tell of the growl I1 of woman 



Study Questions and Collateral Reading xlix 

suffrage. 2(p. Explain the situation in Mexico, 1914-1915. 
JO. What caused and what settled the panicky conditions 
of 1 914-19 15? J/. State briefly the relations of the various 
countries in the World War; our part as a neutral. J2. 
Discuss the five leading measures of Wilson's administra- 
tion, jj. Describe the presidential campaign of 1916; state 
some unusual results, j^. Tell of the growth of temper- 
ance sentiment, jj. State our relations with Mexico, 191 5- 
19 1 7. j6. What island possessions did we acquire? j/. What 
caused the break in our neutrality position? Describe the 
submarine warfare. j8. Discuss briefly our purpose in 
entering the war; the leading war measures, jg. Discuss 
the visit of the commissioners from France and England. 
^o. Tell of the way in which our entry into the war was 
received; describe our preparations. <//. Describe the 
growth of the Army and Navy; the radical steps taken. ^2. 
Discuss the new inventions which were deciding factors in 
the war, ^j. Tell how the American aviators were trained 
for service abroad. //.^. Discuss the Liberty Motor, telling 
its value to the United States. ^5. Explain how it was 
made possible for the United States to rush troops to 
Europe, /f.6. Describe the conditions in Europe when the 
American soldiers first began to fight. ^7. Relate the 
events of the war from July, 1918, to the signing of the 
armistice. 48. Discuss the government control of food, coal, 
railroads, and telegraph and telephone lines, 4Q. What 
were the war-time prohibition measures? 50. Discuss the 
prohibition amendment, telling when it was passed, how it 
was ratified, and when it went into effect. 5/. How were 
school children able to help in winning the war? ^2. What 
organizations became responsible for the entertainment and 
comfort of the men in the service? How did they carry out 
their purpose? jj. Describe the work of the Red Cross and 
the Medical Service and tell at what cost it was done. 5^. 
Tell what the war did for the women of the United States. 
55. Discuss the Anthony Amendment and tell why it was so 
called. §6. Explain the significance of Wilson's speech to 
Congress on the terms of peace. 57. Give the details of the 
signing of the armistice and discuss its terms. ^8. What men 
comprised the American delegation to the Peace Conference? 
5p. Describe the voyage of the ''George Washington" and 
the activities of the President in Europe. 60. Describe the 
work of the Peace Conference. 61. What were some of the 
issues of the 1920 campaign? 62. In what ways was ihe 



] The Appendix 

election unusual? <5j. Tell somethinjj;- of the destructive- 
ness of the war. 64. What were some of its results in this 
country? 6^. How did the United States finally make peace 
with Germany? 66. Describe the first work of the new admin- 
istration. 6j. What other important questions and dis- 
putes were settled? 68. In what ways did the United States 
look after its relations with foreio;-n countries? 6g. What 
progfress did the Disarmament Conference make toward 
preveniin,!,'- future wars? Jo. Tell some benefits to be ofained 
from the wireless telephone. Ji. Discuss briefly the Genoa 
Conference. 

References: Rand McNally's School Alias of Reconstruction. Perry's 
Our Navy in the War. 



The ^'Alayfloivcr'" Compact li 



THE "MAYFLOWER" COMPACT 

In ye name of God, Amen. We whose names are writen, the loyall 
subjects of our dread soveraigne Lord, King James, by ye grace of God, 
of Great Britaine, Franc, & Ireland, king, defender of yo. faith, &c. , 
haveing undertaken, for ye glorie of God, and advancemente of ye 
Christian faith, and honour of our king & countrie, a voyage to plant 
ye first colonie in ye Northerne parts of Virginia, doe by these presents 
solemnly & mutualy in ye presence of God. and one of another, cove- 
nant & combine oiu- selves togeather into a civil! body politick, for our 
better ordering & preservation & furtherance of ye ends aforesaid : and 
by vertue hearof to enacte, constitute, and frame such just & equall 
lawes, ordinances, actes, constitutions, & offices, from time to time, as 
shall be thought most meete & convenient for ye generall good of ye 
Colonie, unto which we promise all due submission and obedience. In 
witnes wherof we have hereunder subscribed our names at Cape-Cod ye 
II. of November, in the year of ye raigne of our soveraigne lord. King 
James, of England, France & Ireland ye iS, and of Scotland ye fiftie- 
fourth. Ano. Dom. 1620. 



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE' 

/// Con^^ress, July 4, 1776. 

The following declaration of principles was agreed to on July 4, 1776, 
and is thus recorded in the Journal of Congress for that day : 

Agreeably to the order of the day, the Congress resolved itself into 
a committee of the whole to take into their further consideration the 
Declaration ; and, after some time, the president resumed the chair, and 
Mr. Harrison reported that the committee have agreed to a Declaration, 
which they desired him to report. The Declaration being read, was 
agreed to as follows : 

The Unanimous Declar.ation of the Thirteen United States of 

America 
When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one 
people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with 
another, and to assume among the powers of the earth the separate and 
equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle 
tnem, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they 
should declare the causes which impel them to tlie separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident : That all men are created 
equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable 
rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness ; 
that, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, 
deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed ; that, when- 
ever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is 
right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new gov- 
ernment, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its 
powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their 

iThe use of capitals, the punctuation, the paragraphing, and the numbering of 
paragraphs are all modern. In the original draft the use of capitals and punctua- 
tion marks was quite different and there was no division into paragraphs. 



Hi The Appendix 

safety and happiness. Pniikncc, indeed, will dictate that governments 
long c-tablishod sh<)ul<l not he changed for li<;lit anfl transient causes; 
and, accordingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are more 
disi»sed to suffer, while evils are suflerable, than to right themselves 
by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. Hut when a long 
train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, 
evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their 
right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new 
guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance 
of these colonies ; and such is now the necessity which constrains them 
to alter their former system.^ of government. The history of the present 
king of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, 
all having \\\ direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over 
these states. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. 

/. He has refused his assent to laws, the most wholesome and 
necessary for the ])ublic good. 

2. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and 
pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent 
should be obtained; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected 
to attend to them. 

j>. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of 
large districts of people unless those people would relinquish the right 
of representation in the legislatur? — a right inestimable to them, and 
formidable to tyrants only. 

4. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, 
uncomfortable, ami distant from the depository of their public records, 
for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. 

J. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly for opposing, 
with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 

6. He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause 
others to l^e elected; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of anni- 
hilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise; the state 
remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all the dangers of invasions 
from without and convulsions within. 

7. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states ; 
for that pmpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners; 
refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising 
the conditions of new appropriations of lands. 

8. He has obstructed the administration of justice by refusing his 
assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

9. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure 
of their offices and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

10. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither 
swarms of officers to harass our people and eat out their substance. 

//. He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, 
without the consent of our legislatures. 

12. He has affected to render the military independent of, and 
superior to, the civil power. 

ij. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction 
foreign to our Constitution and unacknowledged by our laws, giving his 
assent to their acts of pretended legislation : 

a. For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us. 

b. For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any 
murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these states. 



The Declaration of Independence liii 

c. For cntting off oiu" trade with all parts of the world. 

d. For imposing taxes on us without our consent. 

c. For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury. 

f. For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended 
offenses. 

g. For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring 
province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging 
its boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument 
for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies. 

h. For taking away our charters, abt)lishing our most valuable laws, 
and altering fundamentally the forms of our governments. 

/. For suspending our own legislature and declaring themselves 
invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

14. He has abdicated government here by declaring us out of his 
protection, and waging war against us. 

7J-. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, 
and destroyed the lives of our people. 

16. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercena- 
ries to complete the M^orks of death, desolation, and tyranny, already 
begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in 
the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized 
nation. 

ij. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the 
high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the execution- 
ers of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 

18. He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has 
endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless 
Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished 
destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in 
the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered only 
by repeated injury. A prince, whose character is thus marked by every 
act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. 
We have warned them from time to time, of attempts by their legisla- 
ture to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded 
them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We 
have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have 
conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these 
usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and cor- 
respondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and of 
consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which 
denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of man- 
kind — enemies in war; in peace, friends. 

We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, 
in general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the 
world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the 
authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and 
declare that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and 
independent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the 
British crown, and that all political connection between them and the 
state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that as 
free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude 
peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts and 



liv 



TJic Appendix 



things which independent states may of right do. And for the support 
of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine 
Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, 
and our sacred honor. 

The foregoing declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed and 
signed by the following members : 



New Hampshire 
Josiah Bartlelt 
William Whipple 
Matthew Thornton 

Massachusetts Bay 
Samuel Adams 
John Adams 
Robert Treat Paine 
Elbridge Gerry 

Rhode Island 
Stephen Hopkins 
William EUery 

Connecticut 
Roger Sherman 
Samuel Huntington 
William W'illiams 
Oliver Olcott 

New York 
William Floyd 
Philip Livingston 
Francis Lewis 
Lewis Morris 



^^^^^^^/^>/ 



Ne7u Jersey 
Richard StockUm 
John Witherspoon 
Francis Hopkinsou 
John Hart 
Abraham Clark 

Pennsylvania 
Robert Morris 
Benjamin Rush 
Benjamin Franklin 
John Morton 
George Clymer 
James Smith 
George Taylor 
James Wilson 
George Ross 

Delaware 

Csesar Rodney 
George Read 
Thomas M'Kean 

Maryland 
Samuel Chase 
William Paca 
Thomas Stone 
Charles Currull of Can 
roUton 



Virginia 
George Wythe 
Richard Henry Lee 
Thomas Jefferson 
Benjamin Harrison 
Thomas Nelson, Jun. 
Francis Lightfoot Lee 
Carter Braxton 

North Carolina 
W^illiam Hooper 
Joseph Hewes 
John Penn 

South Carolina 
Edward Rutledge 
Thomas Hey ward, Jua 
Thomas Lynch, Jun. 
Arthur Middleton 

Georgia 
Button Gwinnett 
Lyman Hall 
George Walton 








Proi'isKvis of the Constilution 



Iv 



PROVISIONS OF THE CONSTITUTION 



Some steps toward fed- 
eration, resulting in the 
Constitution : 



With regard 
to the United 
States Govern- 
ment the Consti- 
tution provides 
for: 



With regard 
to the members 
of the House of 
Represent a; 
tives, the Con- 
stitution pro- 
vides for: 



With regard 
to the members 
of the Senate, 
the Constitution 
provides for: 



With regard 
to the President, 
the Constitution 
provides for: 



The New England Confederacy (1643). 

The Albany Plan (1754). 

The Stamp Act Congress (1765). 

The Committees of Correspondence (1773). 

The First Continental Congress (1774). 

The Declaration of Independence (1776). 

Articles of Confederation Adopted (1781). 

Convention at Annapolis (1786). 

Constitutional Convention (1787). 



Legislative Department. 
Executive Department. 
Judicial Department. 



House of Representatives. 

Senate. 

President. 

President's Cabinet. 

Federal Judges. 

Federal Courts. 



Qualifications. 

Distribution. 
The census. 



Manner of election. By the people of the several states. 
Term of office. Two years. 

Twenty-five years old. 

Seven years a citizen of the 

United States. 
Live in state where chosen. 
f Among the states according to the 
\ number of inhabitants. 
Every ten years. 
A presiding officer. Members elect the Speaker. 
Power to impeach Federal officers. 

Number. Two from each state. 

Manner of election. By the state legislatures. ^ 
Term of office. Six years. 

Thirty years of age. 

Nine years a citizen of the United 

States. 
Live in state where elected. 
Vice-President of United States. 
In absence of Vice-President Sen- 
ate elects president pro lent. 
Their acting as court to try impeachments brought by 
the House of Representatives. 



Qualifications. 



Presiding officer. 



Term of office. 
Manner of electi on . 

Qualifications. 

• )alh of office. 



Four years, 
f By presidential electors chosen by 
1 the people of the several states. 

Natural-born citizen of the United 
States. 

Thirty-five years of age. 

Fourteen years' residence in 
United States. 

To support the Constitution of t he- 
United States. 



1 Amendments, Article XVII. 



Ivi 



The Appejidix 



With rcerard to the ( mv. ■ ■ ,. 

Federal Judges, the J ^heir appointment. 
Constitution provides I Their ui mber. 
for : t Their term of office. 



r By President with the 
I consent of the Senate 

Fixed by Congress. 

During good behavior. 



The Constitution 
provides for Federal 
courts: 



Tlie Constitution 
provides for Congress : 



\ Bankruptcy. 



One Supreme Court. 

Inferior courts to be established by Congress. 

t;.^^ ^f ^^^i^i^^ f Every year on first 
Time of meeting. | ^^^^^-^^^^ ^^ December. 

Quorum. Majority. 

Each house determine its rules of procedure. 

Each house keep a journal. 

Neither house may adjourn for more than three 

davs without the consent of the other. 
The method of passing laws. 

f To lay taxes.! 

To borrow money. 

To regulate commerce. 

T'^ ^^^^ i„ . (.^ ^^^,,1 ,f„ /Naturalization of foreigners. 
1 o pass laws to regulate i ^ 

To coin money. 

To fix standai'd of weights and measures. 
Congress J To establish post offices. 
has power ; ] To provide for patents and copyrights. 
To declare war. 
To raise and support armies. 
Ti) maintain a navy. 
To provide for a standing army. 
To admit new states. 

To pass laws necessary to carrying out the above 
powers. 

rArmy. 

Commander-in-chief of: ^ '^{^^^{a in service of the 

t United States. 
Grants reprieves and pardons. 

' Makes treaties. 

C Ambassadors. 

Appoints ] "■Ui^.'r-- 

L Federal Judges. 



The Presi- 
dent's powers: 



With the consent of 
the Senate, 



The Presi 
dent's duties 



r Send messages to Congress. 
- J Convene extra sessions of Congress when necessary. 
I R ■ 



ecoive ambassadors. 
Execute the laws. 



1 Amendments, Article XVI. 



The Constitution of the United States Ivii 

THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES ^ 

PREAMBLE 

We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect 
union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the 
common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings 
of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this 
Constitution for the United States of America. 

ARTICLE I 

THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT 

THE congress: its divisions and powers 

Section i. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in 
a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and 
House of Representatives. 

THE house: its composition and powers 

Sec. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of mem- 
bers chosen every second year by the people of the several states, and 
the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for elec- 
tors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature. 

No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to 
the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United 
States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state 
in which he shall be chosen. 

(Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the 
several states which may be included within this Union, according to 
their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the 
whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a 
term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other 
persons.) The actual enumeration shall be made within three years 
after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within 
every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law 
direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every 
thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one representative; 
and until such enumeration shall be made the state of New Hampshire 
shall be entitled to choose three; Massachusetts, eight; Rhode Island 
and Providence Plantations, one; Connecticut, five; New York, six; 
New Jersey, four; Pennsylvania, eight; Delaware, one; Maryland, six; 
Virginia, ten; North Carolina, five; South Carolin,a, five; and Georgia, 
three. 

When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, the 
executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 

The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other 
officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 

the senate: its composition and powers 

Sec. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two 
senators from each state [chosen by the legislature thereof 2], for six years; 
cuid each senator shall have one vote. 



1 In the use of punctuation and capitals this draft is modern. 

2 The phrase in brackets has been set aside by the XVIIth Amendment. 



Iviii The Appendix 

Immediately after they shall be assembled in eonseciucnec of the first 
cleetion, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. 
The scats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expira- 
tion of the second year; of the second class, at the expiration of the 
fourth year; of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year, so 
that one-third may be chosen every second year; [and if vacancies hap- 
pen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of 
any state, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments 
until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall fill such vacancies.'] 

No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age 
of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and 
who shall not, wlicn elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he 
shall be chosen. 

The Vice-President of the United States shall be president of the 
Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be ecjually divided. 

The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro 
tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise 
the office of President of the United States. 

The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments; when 
silting for that purpose, tlicy shall be on oath or affirmation. When the 
President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside; 
and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds 
of the members present. 

Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to 
removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of 
honor, trust, or profit under the United States; but the party convicted 
shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, 
and punishment according to law. 

CONGRESSIONAL ELECTIONS AND DATE OF ASSEMBLING 

Sec. 4. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for sena- 
tors and representatives shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature 
thereof; but the Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such 
regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. 

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such 
meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by 
law appoint a different da3^ 

RULES OF PROCEDURE OF SENATE AND HOUSE 

Sec. 5- Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and 
qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall consti- 
tute a quorum to do business; liut a smaller number may adjourn from 
day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent 
members, in such manner and under such penalties as each house may 
provide. 

Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its 
members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two- 
thirds, expel a member. 

Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to 
time jjublish the same, excepting such })arts as may in their judgment 
require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of th<- iiuinbers of either house 
on any cjuestion shall, at the desire of one-dflli of those present, be entered 
on the journal. 

Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the 

iThc phrase in brackets has been set aside by the XVIIth Amendment. 



Ihe Constitution of the United States Hx 

consent of the other, adjourn for more than three daj'^s, nor to any other 
place than that in whicli tlic two liouses shall be sitting. 

COMPENSATION AND PRIVILEGES OF MEMBERS 

Sec. 6. The senators and representatives shall receive a compen- 
sation! for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the 
treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, 
felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their 
attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and 
returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either house, 
they shall not be questioned in any other place. 

No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he 
was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the 
United States which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof 
shall have been increased, during such time; and no person holding any 
office under the United States shall be a member of either house during 
his continuance in office. 

METHODS OF LEGISLATION 

Sec. 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of 
Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amend- 
ments as on other bills. 

Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives 
and the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to the Presi- 
dent of the United States; if he approve, he shall sign it, but if not, he 
shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have 
originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and 
proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two-thirds of that 
house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objec- 
tions, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if 
approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all 
such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, 
and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be 
entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be 
returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it 
shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner 
as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent 
its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 

Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the 
Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a 
question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the 
United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved 
by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two- thirds of 
the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and 
limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 

POWERS VESTED IN CONGRESS 

Sec. 8. The Congress shall have power: 

To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts 
and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United 
States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout 
the United States; 

To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 

' Seven thousand five hundred dollars a year, and twenty cents for every mile 
necessary traveled in coming to and returning from the Capital. 



Ix TJic Appendix 

To regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several 
slates, and with the Indian tribes ; 

To estabHsh a uniform rule of naturalization, and imiform laws on 
the subject of bankruptcies throuijhnut the United States ; 

To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and 
fix the standard of weights and measures ; 

To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and 
current coin of the United States ; 

To establish post offices and post roads ; 

To promote the progress of science and viseful arts, by securing, for 
limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right to their 
respective writings and discoveries ; 

To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; 

To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high, 
seas, and offenses against the law of nations ; 

To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules 
concerning captures on land and water ; 

To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that 
use shall be for a longer term than two years ; 

To provide and maintain a navy ; 

To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and 
naval forces ; 

To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the 
Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions ; 

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and 
for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of 
the United States, reserving to the states, respectivelj', the appointment 
of the officers and the authority of training the militia according to the 
discipline prescribed by Congress ; 

To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such 
district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular 
states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the govern- 
ment of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places 
purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the 
same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, 
and other needful buildings ; and — 

To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying 
into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this 
Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any depart- 
ment or ofBcer thereof. 

LIMITS TO POWERS OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 

Sec. 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the 
states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited 
by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, 
but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding 
ten dollars for each person. 

The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, 
unless when in case of rebellion or invasion the public safety may 
require it. 

No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 

No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion 
to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. 

No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state. 



TJie Constitution of the United States Ixi 

No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or 
revenue to the ports of one state over those of another ; nor shall vessels 
bound to, or from, one state, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in 
another. 

No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence 
of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of 
the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from 
time to time. 

No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States. And no 
person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, without the 
consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or 
title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. 

LIMITS TO POWERS OF THE STATES 

Sec. io. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confedera- 
tion ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of 
credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of 
debts ; pass any bill or attainder, ex post /ado law, or law impairing the 
obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 

No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts 
or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary 
for executing its inspection laws ; and the net produce of all duties and 
imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports, shall be for the use of 
the treasury of the United States ; and all such laws shall be subject to 
the revision and control of the Congress. 

No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of ton- 
nage, keep troops, or ships of war, in time of peace, enter into any agree- 
ment or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, or engage 
in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not 
admit of delay. 

ARTICLE II 

THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT 

THE EXECUTIVE OFFICERS ; THE ELECTORAL COLLEGE 

Section i. The executive power shall be vested in a President of 
the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term 
of four years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the 
same term, be elected, as follows : 

Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof 
may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators 
and representatives to which the state may be entitled in the Congress ; 
but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or 
profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 

[The electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot 
for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the 
same state with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons 
voted for, and of the number of votes for each ; which list they shall 
sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of 
the United States, directed to the president of the Senate. The presi- 
dent of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of 
Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be 
counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the 
President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors 
appointed ; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and 



Ixii TJic Appendix 

have an ctnial ii\inib(.T of votes, llien the House nt Representatives shall 
immediately ehoose by ballot one of thcni for President ; and if no 
jicrson have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said 
house shall, in like manner, ehoose the President. But in choosing 
the President the votes shall be taken by states, the representation 
from each state having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist 
of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority 
of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the 
choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes 
of the electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain 
two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by 
ballot the Vice-President.'] 

The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and 
the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day shall be the 
same throughout the United States. 

No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United 
States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible 
to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that 
office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and 
been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 

In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, 
resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said 
office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress 
may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or ina- 
bility, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer 
shall then act as President ; and such officer shall act accordingly, until 
the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 

The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a com- 
pensation'' which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the 
period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive 
within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any 
of them. 

Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the 
following oath or affirmation : " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I 
will faithfully execute the office of Pre.sident of the United States, and 
will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Consti- 
tution of the United States." 

POWERS GRANTED TO THE PRESIDENT 

Sec. 2. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and 
navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several states, when 
called into the actual service of the United States ; he may require the 
opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive 
departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective 
offices ; and he shall have power to grant rejirieves and pardons for 
offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 

He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the 
Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the senators present 
concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent 
of the Senate shall appoint, ambassadors, other public ministers and 
consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United 
States whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and 

1 The paragraptt in brackets has been set aside by the Xllth Amendment. 

2 The President receives Jts.ooo a year, and J25.UOO additional for travcHng ex- 
Ijcnsus; the Vice-President receives Ji2,uuu a yeur. 



TJie Constitution of the United States Ixiii 

which shall be established by law ; but the Congress may by law vest 
the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper in the 
President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 

The President shall have power to fill up vacancies that may happen 
during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall . 
expire at the end of their next session. 

THE president's DUTIES 

Sec. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress information 
of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such 
measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraor- 
dinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case 
of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, 
he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall 
receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that 
the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of 
the United States. 

IMPEACHMENT OF EXECUTIVE AND CIVIL OFFICERS 

Sf.c. 4. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the 
United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and 
conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE III 

THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT 

THE FEDERAL COURTS — SUPREME AND INFERIOR 

Section 1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested 
in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may 
from time to time ordain and establish The judges, both of the Supreme 
and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good beha\nor, and 
shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which 
shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. 

POWERS AND JURISDICTION OF THE FEDERAL COURTS 

Sec. 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and 
equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, 
and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; to all 
cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls ; to all 
cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies to which 
the United States shall be a party ; to controversies between two or more 
states ; between a state and citizens of another state ; between citizens 
of different states ; between citizens of the same state claiming lands 
vmder grants of different states, and between a state, or the citizens 
thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. 

In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and con- 
suls, and those in which a state shall be a party, the Supreme Court 
shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, 
the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and 
fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress 
shall make. 

The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by 
jury ; and such trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes shall 
have been committed ; but when not committed within any state, the 
trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have 
directed. 



Ixiv TJic Appendix 

TREASON : ITS NATl'RF. AND PUNISHMENT 

Sec. 3. Treason against the Unitfil States shall consist only in 
levying war against them, or in adhenu^^ to their enemies, giving them 
aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted ()f treason unless on the 
testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in 
open court. 

The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, 
but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, 
except during the life of the person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV 

RELATIONS OF THE STATE AND FEDERAL GOVERNMENTS 

RECOGNITION OV STATE ALTHOIUTV 

Section i. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to 
the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state. 
And the Congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which 
such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 

LAWS regarding CITIZENS OF THE STATES 

Sec. 2. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges 
and immunities of citizens in the several states. 

A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, 
who shall flee from justice, and be found in another state, shall, on 
demand of the executive authority of the state from which he fled, be 
delivered up, to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime. 

No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws thereof, 
escaping into another, shall in consequence of any law or regulation 
therein,"be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered 
up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. 

ADMISSION OF STATES AND REGULATION OF UNITED STATES TERRITORIES 

Sec. 3. New states may be admitted by the Congress into this 
Union ; but no new state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdic- 
tion of any other state ; nor any state be formed by the junction of two 
or more states, or parts of states, without the consent of the legislatures 
of the states concerned as well as of the Congress. 

The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful 
rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging 
to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so con- 
strued as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any partic- 
ular state. 

PROTECTION GUARANTEED BY THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 

Sec. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every state in this 
Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them 
against invasion ; and on application of the legislature, or of the Execu- 
tive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence. 

ARTICLE V 

POWER AND METHOD OF AMENDING THE CONSTITUTION 
The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it 
necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the 
application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several states, shall 



The Constitution of the United States Ixv 

call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall 
be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when 
ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states, or by 
conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of 
ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; provided that no amend- 
ment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred 
and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the 
ninth section of the first article ; and that no state, without its consent, 
shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE VI 

PUBLIC DEBTS: THE SUPREME LAW; OATH OF OFFICE ; 
RELIGIOUS TEST PROHIBITED 

All debts contracted and engagements entered into before the adop- 
tion of this Constitution shall be as valid against the United States 
under this Constitution as under the confederation. 

This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be 
made in pursuance thereof ; and all treaties made, or which shall be 
made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme 
law of the land ; and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, 
anything in the Constitution or laws of any state to the contrary 
notwithstanding. 

The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members 
of the several state legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, 
both of the United States and of the several states, shall be bound by 
oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; but no religious test 
shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust 
under the United States. 

ARTICLE VII 

RATIFICATION AND ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CONSTITUTION 

The ratification of the conventions of nine states shall be sufficient 
for the establishment of this Constitution between the states so ratifying 
the same. 
Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the states present, the 

seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand 

seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence of the 

United States of America the twelfth. 
In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names, 




Deputy from Virginia, 

New Hampshire 
John Langdon Connecticut 

Nicholas Gilman William Samuel Johnson 

Massachusetts ^^^^^ Sherman 
Nathaniel Gorham ^^^^ ^^^^^ 

Rufus King Alexander Hamilton 



Ixvi The Appendix 

New Jersey Maryland 

William Livingston Tames McHenry 

David Brearley Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer 

V/illiam Paterson Daniel Carroll 
Jonathan Dayton Virginia 

Pennsylvania John Blair 

Benjamin Franklin J^'"^^ Madison, Jun. 
Thomas Mifflin North Carolina 

Robert Morris William Blount 

George Clymcr Richard Dobbs Spaight 

Thomas Fitzsimons Hugh Williamson 
James Wilson South Carolina 

Gouverneur Morris John Rutledge 

Delaware Charles Cotesworth Pinckney 

George Read Charles Pinckney 

Gunning Bedford, Jun. P>erce Butler 
John Dickinson Georgia 

Richard Bassett William Few 

Jacob Broom Abraham Baldwin 

Attest: William Jackson, Secretary. 

AMENDMENTS 

Articles in addition to, and amendment of, the Constitution of the 
United States of Americd, proposed by Congress, and ratified by the 
legislatures of the several states pursuant of the fifth article of the orig- 
inal Constitution. ARTICLE I' 

FREEDOM OF RELIGION AND SPEECH ; RIGHT OF ASSEMBLY 
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, 
or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom ot 
speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, 
and to petition the government iox a redress of grievances. 

ARTICLE II 

RIGHT TO BEAR ARMS 

A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free 
state, the right of the people io keep and bear arms shall not be 
infringed. ARTICLE III 

QUARTERING OF TROOPS 

No soldier shall, in time of peace, lie quartered in any house without 
the consent of the owner ; nor in time of war but in a manner to be pre- 
scribed by law. ARTICLE IV 

RIGHT OF SEARCH PROHIBITED 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, 
and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be 

1 The first ten amendments were propo.sed in 1789, and adopted before the close 
of 1791. They were to "more efficiently guard certain rights already provided for 
in the Constitution, or to prohibit certain exercises of authority supposed to be 
dangerous ti) the public interests." 



The Constitution of the United States Ixvii 

violated, and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, sup- 
ported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to 
be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 

ARTICLE V 
RIGHT TO TRIAL BY JURY 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infa- 
mous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, 
except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, 
when in actual service in time of war and public danger ; nor shall any 
person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of 
life and limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a wit- 
ness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, with- 
out due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public 
use, without just compensation. 

ARTICLE VI 
RIGHTS OF ACCUSED IN CRIMINAL CASES 
In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a 
speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district 
wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have 
been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature 
and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against 
him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, 
and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. 

ARTICLE VII 

SUITS AT COMMON LA^V 

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed 
twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact 
tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined iu any court of the United 
States than according to the rules of common law. 

ARTICLE VIII 

BAIL AND FINES 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor 
cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

ARTICLE IX 

MODIFICATION OF ENUMERATED RIGHTS 

The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be 
construed to deny or disparage others retained by tne people. 

ARTICLE X 

POWERS RESERVED TO STATES AND THE PEOPLE 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, 
nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, 
or to the people. ARTICLE XI ' 

LIMITATION TO POWER OF THE FEDERAL COURTS 

The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to 
extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against 
one of the United States by citizens of another state, or by citizens or 
subjects of any foreign state. 

\ Adopted in 179?. 



Ixviii The Appendix 

ARTICLE XII' 

NEW ELECTORAL LAW 
The electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot 
for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an 
inhabitant of the same state with themselves ; they shall name in their 
ballots the person voted for as President, and in' distinct ballots the 
person voted for as Vice-President ; and they shall make distinct lists of 
all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice- 
President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall 
sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government ot 
the United States, directed to the President of the Senate ; the President 
of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Repre- 
sentatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted ; 
the person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be 
the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of 
electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the 
persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of 
those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose 
immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, 
the vote shall be taken by states, the representation from each state 
having one vote. A quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or 
members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states 
shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives 
shall not choose a President whenever the rij^ht of choice shall devolve 
upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the 
Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or 
other constitutional disability of the President. The person having the 
greatest number of votes as Vice-President shall be the Vice-President, 
if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; 
and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers 
on the list the Senate shall choose the Vice-President. A quorum for the 
purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and 
a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But 
no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be 
eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. 

ARTICLE Xlir^ 

ABOLITION OF SLAVERY 
SLAVERY AND I.N VOLL NT.VK V SliUVITlDE PROHIinTED 

Section i. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a 
punishment for crime, whei'eof the party shall have been duly convicted, 
shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their 
jurisdiction. 

Sec. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- 
priate legislation. 

ARTICLE XIV 3 

NEW LAWS MADE NECESSARY BY THE CIVIL WAR 
QUALIFICATIONS FUR CITIZENSMM' 

Section i. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, 
and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States 
and of the state wherein they reside. No state shall make or enforce 

» Adopted in 18)4. 2 Adopted in 1S65. 3 Adopted in 1868. 



The Constitution of the United States Ixix 

any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of 
the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, 
or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within 
its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 

APPORTIONMENT OF REPRESENTATIVES 

Sec. 2, Representatives shall be appointed among the several states 
according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of 
persons in each state, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right 
to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice- 
President of the United States, representatives in Congress, the execu- 
tive or judicial officers of a state, or the members of the legislature thereof, 
is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such state, being twenty-one 
years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, 
except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of repre- 
sentation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number 
of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens 
twenty-one years of age in such state. 

DISABILITY FOR BREAKING OATH OF OFFICE 

Sec. 3. No person shall be a senator, or representative in Congress, 
or elector of President or Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or mili- 
tary, under the United States, or under any state, who, having previ- 
ously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United 
States, or as a member of any state legislature, or as an executive or 
judicial officer of any state, to support the Constitution of the United 
States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, 
or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, 
by a vote of two-thirds of each house, remove such disability. 

THE PUBLIC DEBT 

Sec. 4. The vahdity of the public debt of the United States, author- 
ized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties 
for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be ques- 
tioned. But neither the United States nor any state shall assume or 
pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion 
against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation 
of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held 
illegal and void. 

Sec. 5. Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legis- 
lation, the provisions of this article. 

ARTICLE XVI 

RIGHT OF SUFFRAGE 

RIGHT GUARANTEED TO ALL CITIZENS 

Section i. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall 
not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any state, on account 
of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Sec 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- 
priate legislation. 

' Adopted in 1870. 



Ixx The Appendix 

ARTICLE XVP 

INCOME TAX 

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, 
from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several 
states and without regard to any census or enumeration. 

ARTICLE XVII ' 
DIRECT ELECTION OF SENATORS 

The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators 
from each state, elected by the people thereof for six years; and each 
senator shall have one vote. The electors in each state shall have the 
qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the 
state legislatures. 

When vacancies happen in the representation of any state in the 
senate, the executive authority of each state shall issue writs of election 
to fill such vacancies; Provided, That the legislature of any state may 
empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until 
the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct. 

This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election 
or term of any senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the 
Constitution. 

ARTICLE XVIII 2 
PROHIBITION 

Section i. After one year from the ratification of this article the 
manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors with the 
importation thereof, or exportation thereof from the United States and 
all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof, for beverage purposes is 
hereby prohibited. 

Sec. 2. The Congress and the several states shall have concurrent 
power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 

Sec. 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been 
ratified as an amendment to the constitution by the legislatures of 
the several states, as provided in the constitution, within seven years from 
the date of the submission hereof to the states by the Congress. 

ARTICLE XIX"! 
WOMAN SUFFRAGE 

The right of citizens of the United .States to vote shall not be denied 
t>y the United .States or any state on account of sex. 

1 Adopted 19IJ. -Adopted 1919- ■' .\doi>ted 1020. 



TJic I^ourtccu Poht/s Ixxi 

THE FOURTEEN POINTS 

I. open coxi'iiants of jx-acc, openly ai"ri\('d at; after wliieli there 
t.hall be no private international understandings of any kind, but diplo- 
macy shall proceed always frankly and in the public view. 

II. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside territorial 
waters, aHke in peace and in war, except as the seas may be closed in whole 
or in part by international action for the enforcement of international 
covenants. 

III. The removal, so far as possible, of all economic barriers and the 
establishment of an equality of trade conditions among all the nations 
consenting to the peace and associating themselves for its maintenance. 

IV. Adequate guaranties given and taken that national armaments 
will be reduced to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety. 

V. A free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all 
colonial claims, based upon a strict observance of the principle that in 
determining all such questions of sovereignty the interests of the popula- 
tions concerned must have equal weight with the equitable claims of the 
Government whose title is to be determined. 

VI. The evacuation of all Russian territory, and such a settlement of 
all questions affecting Russia as will secure the best and freest cooperation 
of the other nations of the world in obtaining for her an unhampered and 
unemban-assed opportunity for the independent determination of her own 
political development and national policy, and assure her of a sincere 
welcome into the society of free nations under institutions of her own 
choosing; and, more than a welcome, assistance also of every kind that 
she may need and may herself desire. The treatment accorded Russia 
by her sister nations in the months to come will be the acid test of their 
good will, of their comprehension of her needs as distinguished from their 
own interests, and of their intelligent and unselfish sympathy. 

VII. Belgium, the whole world will agree, must be evacuated and 
restored without any attempt to limit the sovereignty which she enjoys 
in common with all other free nations. No other single act will serve as 
this will serve to restore confidence among the nations in the laws which 
they have themselves set and determined for the government of their 
relations with one another. Without this healing act the whole structure 
and validity of international law is forever impaired. 

VIII. All French territory should be freed and the invaded portions 
restored; and the wrong done to France by Prussia in 1871 in the matter 
of Alsace-Lorraine, which has unsettled the peace of the world for nearly 
fifty years, should be righted, in order that peace may once more be made 
secure in the interest of all. 

IX. A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected along 
clearly recognizable lines of nationality. 

X. The peoples of Austria-Hungary, whose place among the nations 
we wish to see safeguarded and assured, should be accorded the freest 
opportunity of autonomous development. 

XI. Rumania, Serbia, and Montenegro should be evacuated; occu- 
pied territories restored ; Serbia accorded free and secure access to the sea ; 
and the relations of the several Balkan States to one another determined 
by friendly counsel along historically established lines of allegiance and 
nationality; and international guaranties of the political and economic 
independence and territorial integrity of the several Balkan States should 
be entered into. 



Ixxii The Apf^cndix 

XII. The 'I'urkish ])ortions of the present Ottoman Eminre shoulfl l)e 
assured a seeure sovoreij^nty, but the other nationalities whieh are now 
under Turkish rule should be assured an undoubted seiurity of life and an 
absolutely unmolested opi^ortunity of autonomous developtnent, and the 
Dardanelles should be permanently opened as a free passage to the ships 
and commerce of all nations under international guaranties. 

XIII. An independent Polish State should be erected which should 
include the territories inhabited by indisputably Polish populations, 
which should be assured a free and secure access to the sea, and whose 
political and economic independence and territorial integrity should be 
guaranteed by international covenant. 

XIV. A general association of nations must be formed, under specific 
covenants, for the purpose of affording mutual guaranties of political 
independence and territorial integrity to great and small States alike. 



THE COVENANT OF THE LEAGUE OF 
NATIONS 

In order to promote international cooperation and to achieve inter- 
national peace and security, by the acceptance of obligations not to resort 
to war, by the prescription of open, just, and honorable relations between 
nations, by the firm establishment of the understandings of international 
law as to actual rule of conduct among Governments, and by the main- 
tenance of justice and a scrupulous respect for all treaty obligations in 
the dealings of organized peoples with one another, the high contracting 
parties agree to this Covenant of the League of Nations. 

ARTICLE I 

The original members of the League of Nations shall be those of the 
signatories which are named in the annex to this Covenant and also such 
of those other States named in the annex as shall accede without reserva- 
tion to this Covenant. Such accessions shall be eflFected by a declaration 
deposited with the secretariat within two months of the coming into force 
of the Covenant. Notice thereof shall be sent to all other members of the 
League. 

Any fully self-governing State, Dominion, or colony not named in 
the annex may become a member of the League if its admission is agreer* 
to by two-thirds of the Assembly, provided that it shall give effective 
guarantees of its sincere intentions to observe its international obligations 
and shall accept such regulations as may be prescribed by the League in 
regard to its military and naval forces and armaments. 

Any member of the League may, after two years' notice of its intention 
so to do, withdraw from the League, provided that all its international 
oliligations and all its obligations under this Covenant shall have been 
fulfilled at the time of its withdrawal. 

ARTICLE II 
The action of the League under this Covenant shall be effective through 
the instrumentality of an Assembly and of a Council, with a permanent 
secretariat. 



The Covenant of the League of Nations Ixxiii 

ARTICLE III 

The Assembly sliall consist of representatives of the members of the 
I^eague. 

The Assembly shall meet at stated intervals, and from time to time as 
occasion may require, at the seat of the League or at such other place 
as may be decided upon. 

The Assembly may deal at its meetings with any matter within the 
sphere of action of the League or affecting the peace of the world. 

At meetings of the Assembly each member of the League shall have 
one vote, and may have not more than three representatives. 

ARTICLE IV 

The Council shall consist of representatives of the United States of 
America, of the British Empire, of France, of Italy, and of Japan, together 
with representatives of four other members of the League. These four 
members of the League shall be selected by the Assembly from time to 
time in its discretion. Until the appointment of the representatives of 
the four members of the League first selected by the assembly, represen- 
tatives of (blank) shall be members of the Council. 

With the approval of the majority of the Assembly the Council may 
name additional members of the League, whose representatives shall 
always be members of the Council. The Council with like approval may 
increase the number of members of the League to be selected by the Assem- 
bly for representation on the Council. 

The Council shall meet from time to time as occasion may require, 
and at least once a year, at the seat of the League or at such other place 
as may be decided upon. 

The Council may deal at its meetings with any matter within the sphere 
of action of the League or affecting the peace of the world. 

Any member of the League not represented on the Council shall be 
invited to send a representative to sit as a member at any meeting of the 
Council during the consideration of matters specially affecting the interests 
of that member of the League. 

At meetings of the Council each member of the League represented 
on the Council shall have one vote, and may have not more than one 
representative. 

ARTICLE V 

Except where otherwise expressly provided in this Covenant, decisions 
at any meeting of the Assembly or of the Council shall require the agree- 
ment of all the members of the League represented at the meeting. 

All matters of procedure at meetings of the Assembly or the Council, 
the appointment of committees to investigate particular matters, shall 
be regulated by the Assembly or by the Council and may be decided by a 
majority of the members of the League represented at the meeting. 

The first meeting of the Assembly and the first meeting of the Council 
shall be summoned by the President of the United States of America. 

ARTICLE VI 
The permanent secretariat shall be established at the seat of the League. 
The secretariat shall comprise a Secretary-General and such secretaries 
and staff as may be required. 



Ixxiv The Appendix 

Tlic first vScerelary-Gcncral shall be the ]»ersoii nainetl in the annex; 
thereafter the Scerctary-Gcncral shall be appointed by the Council with 
the approval of the inajority of the Asscnilily. 

The secretaries and the stafl of the secretarial shall be appointed by 
the Secretary-General with the approval of the Council. 

The Secretary-General shall act in that capacity at all meetings of the 
Assembly and of the Council. 

The expenses of the secretariat shall be borne by the members of the 
League in accordance with the apportionment of the expenses of the 
International Bureau of the Universal Postal Union. 

ARTICLE VII 

The scat of the League is established at Geneva. 

The Council may at any time decide that the seat of the League shall 
be established elsewhere. 

All positions under or in connection with the League, including the 
secretariat, shall be open equally to men and women. 

Representatives of the members of the League and officials of the 
League when engaged on the business of the League shall enjoy diplo- 
matic privileges and immunities. 

The buildings and other property occupied by the League or its offi- 
cials or by representatives attending its meetings shall be inviolable. 

ARTICLE VIII 

The members of the League recognize that the maintenance of a peace 
requires the reduction of national armaments to the lowest point consistent 
with national safety and the enforcement by common action of inter- 
national oliligations. 

The Council, taking account of the geographical situation and circum- 
stances of each, shall formulate plans for such reduction for the considera- 
tion and action of the several Governments. 

Such plans shall be subject to reconsideration and revision at least 
every ten years. 

After these plans shall have been adopted by the several Governments, 
limits of armaments therein fixed shall not be exceeded without the con- 
currence of the Council. 

The meml)crs of the League agree that the manufacture by private 
enterprise of munitions and implements of war is open to grave objections. 
'J"he Council shall advise how the evil effects attendant upon such manu- 
facture can be prevented, due regard being had to the necessities of those 
members of the League which are not able to manufacture the munitions 
and implements of war necessary for their safety. 

The members of the League undertake to interchange full and frank 
information as to the scale of their armaments, their military and naval 
programmes, and the condition of such of their industries as are adaptable 
to warlike purposes. 

ARTICLE IX 
A permanent commission shall be constituted to advise the Council 
on the execution of the provisions of Articles I and VIII and on military 
and naval questions generally. 



Tlic Covenant of the League of Nations Ixxv 

ARTICLE X 
Tho members of the League undertake to respect and preserve, as 
against external aggression, the territorial integrity and existing poiitical 
independence of all members of the League. In case of any such aggression 
or in case of any threat or danger of such aggression the Council shall 
advise upon the means by which this obligation shall be fulfilled. 

ARTICLE XI 

Any war or threat of war, whether immediately affecting any of the 
members of the League or not, is hereby declared a matter of concern of 
the whole League, and the League shall take any action that may be 
deemed wise and effectual to safeguard the peace of nations. In case any 
such emergency should arise, the Secretary- General shall, on the request 
of any member of the League, forthwith summon a meeting of the Council. 

It is also declared to be the fundamental right of each member of the 
League to bring to the attention of the Assembly or of the Council any 
circumstance whatever aflfecting international relations which threatens 
to disturb either the peace or the good understanding between nations 
upon which peace depends. 

ARTICLE XII 

The members of the League agree that if there should arise between 
them any dispute likely to lead to a rupture they will submit the matter 
either to arbitration or to inquiry by the Council, and they agree in no 
case to resort to war until three months after the award by the arbitrators 
or the report by the Council. 

In any case under this article the award of the arbitrators shall be 
made within a reasonable time, and the report of the Council shall be made 
within six months after the submission of the dispute. 

ARTICLE XIII 

The members of the League agree that whenever any dispute shall 
arise between them which they recognize to be suitable for submission 
to arbitration and which cannot be satisfactorily settled by diplomacy, 
they will submit the whole subject matter to arbitration. Disputes as 
to the interpretation of a treaty, as to any question of international 
law, as to the existence of any fact which if established would constitute 
a breach of any international obligation, or as to the extent and nature 
of the reparation to be made for any such breach, are declared to be among 
those which are generally suitable for submission to arbitration. For the 
consideration of any such dispute the court of arbitration to which the 
case is referred shall be the court agreed upon by the parties to the dispute 
or stipulated in any convention existing between them. 

_ The members of the League agree that they will carry out in full good 
faith any award that may be rendered and that they will not resort to 
war against a member of the League which complies therewith. In the 
event of any failure to carry out such an award the Council shall propose 
what steps should be taken to give effect thereto. 

ARTICLE XIV 

The Council shall formulate and submit to the members of the 
League for adoption plans for the establishment of a permanent Court of 



Ixxvi The Appendix 

International Justice. The Court shall be competent to hear and deter- 
mine any dispute of an international character which the parties thereto 
submit to it. The Court may also give an advisory opinion upon any 
dispute or question referred to it by the Council or by the Assembly. 

ARTICLE XV 

If there should arise between members of the League any dispute 
likely to lead to a rupture which is not submitted to arbitration as above, 
the members of the League agree that they will submit the matter to the 
Council. Any party to the dispute may effect such submission by giving 
notice of the existence of the dispute to the Secretary-General, who will 
make all necessary arrangements for a full investigation and consideration 
thereof. For this purpose the parties to the dispute will communicate 
to the Secretary-General, as promptly as possible, statements of their 
case, all the relevant facts and papers. The Council may forthwith 
direct the publication thereof. 

The Council shall endeavor to effect a settlement of any dispute, and 
if such efforts are successful, a statement shall be made public giving 
such facts and explanations regarding the dispute and terms of settle- 
ment thereof as the Council may deem appropriate. 

If the dispute is not thus settled, the Council cither unanimously or 
by a majority vote shall make and publish a report containing a state- 
ment of the facts of the dispute and the recommendations which are 
deemed just and proper in regard thereto. 

Any member of the League represented on the Council may make 
public a statement of the facts of the dispute and of its conclusions regard- 
ing the same. 

If a report by the Council is unanimously agreed to by the members 
thereof, other than the representatives of one or more of the parties to 
the dispute, the members of the League agree that they will not go to war 
with any party to the dispute which complies with the recommendations 
of the report. 

If the Council fails to reach a report which is unanimously agreed to 
by the members thereof, other than the representatives of one or more 
of the parties to the dispute, the members of the League reserve to them- 
selves the right to take such action as they shall consider necessary for 
the maintenance of right and justice. 

If the dispute between the parties is claimed by one of them, and is 
found by the Council to arise out of a matter which by international law 
is solely within the domestic jurisdiction of that party, the Council shall 
so report, and shall make no recommendation as to its settlement. 

The Council may in any case under this article refer the dispute to 
the Assembly. The dispute shall be so referred at the request of cither 
party to the dispute, provided that such request be made within fourteen 
days after the submission of the dispute to the Council. 

In any case referred to the Assembly all the provisions of this article 
and of Article XII relating to the action and powers of the Council shall 
apply to the action and powers of the Assembly, provided that a report 
made by the As.sembly, if concurred in by the representatives of those 
members of the League represented on the Council and of a majority of 
the other members of the League, exclusive in each case of the represen- 
tatives of the parties to the dispute, shall have the same force as a report 



The Covenatit of the League of Nations Ixxvii 

by the Council concurred in by all the members thereof other than the 
representatives of one or more of the parties to the dispute. 

ARTICLE XVI 

Should any member of the League resort to war in disregard of its 
covenants under Article XII, XIII, or XV, it shall ipso facto be deemed 
to have committed an act of war against all other members of the League, 
which hereby undertake immediately to subject it to the severance of 
all trade or financial relations, the prohibition of all intercourse between 
their nationals and the nationals of the covenant-breaking member of the 
League, and the prevention of all financial, commercial, or personal 
intercourse between the nationals of the covenant-breaking member of the 
League and the nationals of any other State, whether a member of the 
League or not. 

It shall be the duty of the Council in such case to recommend to the 
several Governments concerned what effective military or naval forces 
the members of the League shall severally contribute to the armaments 
of forces to be used to protect the covenants of the League. 

The members of the League agree, further, that they will mutually 
support one another in the financial and economic measures which are 
taken under this article, in order to minimize the loss and inconvenience 
resulting from the above measures, and that they will mutually support 
one another in resisting any special measures aim^ed at one of their number 
by the covenant-breaking State, and that they will take the necessary 
steps to afford passage through their territory to the forces of any of the 
members of the League which are cooperating to protect the covenants 
of the League. 

Any member of the League which has violated any covenant of the 
League may be declared to be no longer a member of the League by a 
vote of the Council concurred in by the representatives of all the members 
of the League represented thereon. 

ARTICLE XVII 

In the event of a dispute between a member of the League and a State 
which is not a member of the League or between States not members of 
the League, the State or States not members of the League shall be invited 
to accept the obligations of membership in the League for the purposes 
of such dispute, upon such conditions as the Council may deem just. 
If such invitation is accepted, the provisions of Articles XII to XVI, 
inclusive, shall be applied with such modifications as may be deemed neces- 
sary by the Council. 

Upon such invitation being given, the Council shall immediately insti- 
tute an inquiry into the circumstances of the dispute and recommend 
such action as may seem best and most effectual in the circumstances. 

If a State so invited shall refuse to accept the obligations of member- 
ship in the League for the purposes of such dispute, and shall resort to 
war against a member of the League, the provisions of Article XVI shall 
be applicable as against the State taking such action. 

If both parties to the dispute, when so invited, refuse to accept the 
obligations of membership in the League for the purposes of such dispute, 
the Council may take such measures and make such recommendations as 
will prevent hostilities and will result in the settlement of the dispute. 



Ixxviii The Appendix 

ARTICLE XVIII 
E\cry convention or inlcrnalional engagement entered into hence- 
forward by any incmVjcr of tlie League shall be forthwith registered with 
tlic secretariat and shall as soon as possible be published b\- it. No such 
treaty or international engagement shall be binding until so registered. 

ARTICLE XIX 
The Assembly may from time to time advise the reconsideration by 
members of the League of treaties which ha\-e become inapplicable and 
the consideration of international conditions whose continuance might 
endanger the peace of the world. 

ARTICLE XX 

The members of the League severally agree that this Covenant is 
accepted as abrogating all obligations or understandings inter se which 
are inconsistent with the terms thereof,' and .solemnly undertake that they 
will not hereafter enter into any engagements inconsistent with the terms 
thereof. 

In case members of the League shall, before becoming a member of 
the League, have undertaken any obligations inconsistent with the term? 
of this Covenant, it shall be the duty of such member to take immediate 
steps to procure its release from such obligations. 

ARTICLE XXI 
Nothing in this Covenant shall be deemed to affect the validity of 
international engagements such as treaties of arbitration or regional 
understandings like the Monroe Doctrine for securing the maintenance 
of peace. 

ARTICLE XXII 

To those colonies and territories which as a consequence of the late war 
have ceased to be under the sovereignty of the States which formerly 
governed them, and which are inhabited by peoples not yet able to stand 
by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modem world, there 
should be applied the principle that the well-being and development of 
such peoi)les form, a sacred trust of civilization, and that securities for the 
performance of this trust should be embodied in this Covenant. 

The best method of giving practical effect to this principle is that 
the tutelage of such peoples be intrusted to advanced nations who, by 
reason of their resources, their experience, or their geographical position, 
can best undertake this responsibility, and who are willing to accept it, 
and that this tutelage should be exercised by them as mandatories on behalf 
of the League. 

The character of the mandate must differ according to the stage of 
the development of the people, the geographical situation of the territory, 
its economic condition, and other similar circumstances. 

Certain communities formerly belonging to the Turkish Empire have 
reached a stage of development where their existence as independent 
nations can be provisionally recognized subject to the rendering of admin- 
istrative advice and assistance by a mandatory until such time as they 
are able to stand alone. The wishes of these communities must be a 
principal consideration in the selection of the mandatory. 



The Covenant of the League of Nations Ixxix 

Other peoples, especially those of Central Africa, are at such a stage 
that the mandatory must be responsible for the administration of the 
territory under conditions which will guarantee freedom of conscience or 
religion, subject only to the maintenance of public order and morals, the 
prohibition of abuses such as the slave trade, the arms traffic, and the liquor 
traflfic, and the prevention of the establishment of fortifications or military 
and naval bases and of military training of the nations for other than 
police purposes and the defense of territory, and will also secure equal 
opportunities for the trade and commerce of other members of the League. 

There are territories, such as Southwest Africa and certain of the 
South Pacific islands, which, owing to the sparseness of their population 
or their small size or their remoteness from the centers of civilization or 
their geographical contiguity to the territory of the mandatory and other 
circumstances, can be best administered under the laws of the mandatory 
as integral portions of its territory subject to the safeguards above men- 
tioned in the interests of the indigenous population. In every case of 
mandate the mandatory shall render to the Council an annual report 
in reference to the territory committed to its charge. 

The degree of authority, control, or administration to be exercised by 
the mandatory shall, if not previously agreed upon by the members of the 
League, be explicitly defined in each case by the Council. 

A permanent commission shall be constituted to receive and examine 
the annual report of the mandatories, and to advise the Council on all 
matters relating to the observance of the mandates. 

ARTICLE XXIII 
Subject to and in accordance with the provisions of international 
conventions existing or hereafter to be agreed upon, the members of the 
League (a) will endeavor to secure and maintain fair and humane condi- 
tions of labor for men, women, and children, both in their own countries 
and in all countries to which their commercial and industrial relations 
extend, and for that purpose will establish and maintain the necessary 
international organizations; Qo) undertake to secure just treatment of 
the native inhabitants of territories under their control; (f) will entrust 
the League with the general supervision over the execution of agreements 
with regard to the traffic in women and children, and the traffic in opium 
and other dangerous drugs; {d) will entrust the League with the general 
supervision of the trade in arms and ammunition with the countries in 
which the control of this traffic is necessary in the common interest; 
(e) will make provision to secure and maintain freedom of communication 
and of transit and equitable treatment for the commerce of all members 
of the League (in this connection the special necessities of the regions 
devastated during the war of 1914-1918 shall be in mind); (/) will 
endeavor to take steps in matters of international concern for the pre- 
vention and control of disease. 

ARTICLE XXIV 
There shall be placed under the direction of the League all international 
bureaus already established by general treaties if the parties to such 
treaties consent. All such international bureaus and all commissions for 
the regulation of matters of international interest hereafter constituted 
shall be placed under the direction of the League. 



Ixxx Till' ^ \ppcndix 

In all matters of international interest which are regulated by general 
ronventions but which are not placed under the control of international 
bureaus or commissions, the secretariat of the League shall, subject to the 
consent of the Council and if desired by the parties, collect and distribute 
all relevant information and shall render any other assistance which may 
be necessary or desirable. 

The Council may include as part of the expenses of the secretariat the 
expenses of any bureau or commission which is placed under the direction 
of the League. 

ARTICLE XXV 

The members of the League agree to encourage and jjromote the estab- 
lishment and cooperation of duly authorized voluntary national Red Cross 
organizations having as inirposcs improvement of health, the prevention 
of disease, and the mitigation of sufTering throughout the world. 

ARTICLE XXVI 
Amendments to this Covenant will take eflect when ratified by the 
members of the League whose representatives compose the Council and 
by a majority of the members of the League whose representatives compose 
the Assembly. 

Such amendment shall not bind any member of the League which 
signifies its dissent therefrom, but in that case it shall cease to be a member 
of the League. 

ANNEX TO THE COVENANT 

One — Original members of the League of Nations. 
Signatories of the Treaty of Peace: 

United States of Guatemala 

America Hayti 

Belgum Hedjaz 

Bolivia Honduras 

Brazil Italy 

British Empire Japan 

Canada Liberia 

Australia Nicaragua 

South Africa Panama 

New South Wales Peru 

India Poland 

China Portugal 

Cuba Rumania 

Czecho-Slovakia vSerbia 

Ecuador Siam 

France Uruguay 

Greece 
States invited to accede to the Covenant: 

Argentine Republic Persia 

Chile Salvador 

Colombia Spain 

Denmark Sweden 

Netherlands Switzerland 

Norway Venezuela 

Paraguay 
Two— First Secrctary-Cicneral of the League of Nations, ■ 



The Appendix Ixxxi 

A TABLE OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES 



Dates 



•a \ 



Dec. 

Dec. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

April 

May 

June 

June 

July 

Nov. 

May 

March 

June 

June 

Feb. 

April 

Dec. 

Dec. 

Dec. 

Dec. 

March 

Aug. 

June 

Jan. 

March 

Dec. 

Dec. 

May 

Sept. 

May 

Feb. 

Jan. 

June 

Oct. 

March 

Aug. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

July 

July 

Jan. 

Nov. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

July 

March 



June 14 



Under Civil 
Government 



No. 



Name 



Delaware 

Pennsylvania 

New Jersey 

Georgia 

Connecticut 

Massachusetts 

Maryland 

South Carolina 

New Hampshire 

Virginia 

New York 

North Carolina 

Rhode Island 

Vermont 

Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Ohio 

Louisiana 

Indiana 

Mississippi 

Illinois 

Alabama 

Maine 

Missouri 

Arkansas 

Michigan 

Florida 

Texas 

Iowa 

Wisconsin 

California 

Minnesota 

Oregon 

Kansas 

West Virginia 

Nevada 

Nebraska 

Colorado 

North Dakota 

South Dakota 

Montana 

Washington 

Idaho 

Wyoming 

Utah 

Oklahoma 

New Mexico 

Arizona 

Alaska 

District of Columbia 
( Hawaii 

Porto Rico 

Philippines 

\ Guam 

Panama Canal Zone 

American Samoa 

Virgin Islands 



Area in 
Square 
Miles ' 



1.965 

44,S3 2 

7.S14 

58,725 

4,820 

8,039 

9.941 

30,495 

9,031 

40,262 

47,654 

48,740 

1,067 

9,124 

40,181 

41,687 

I 40,740 

45,409 

36,045 

46,362 

I 56,043 

51,279 

29,89s 

1 68,727 

52,525 

I 57.4S0 

I 54.861 

1262,398 

55,586 

1 55,256 

155.652 

80,858 

95.607 

81,774 

24,022 

109,821 

76,808 

103,658 

70,183 

76,868 

146,131 

66,836 

83.354 

97,548 

82,184 

69,414 

122,503 

113,810 

590,884« 

60 

6,4493 

3,4353 

115,0263 

2I03 

5273 

773 

1323 



Population 
in 1920 2 



Density of 

Population 

in 19M 



223,003 

8,720,017 

3.155.900 

2,895,832 

1,380,631 

3.852,356 

1,449,661 

1.683,724 

443.083 

2.309,187 

10,385,227 

2.559. 123 

604,397 

352,428 

2,416,630 

2.337,88s 

5.759,394 

1,798,509 

2,930.390 

1.790,618 

6,485,280 

2,348,174 

768,014 

3,404,055 

1,752.204 

3,668,412 

968,470 

4,663,228 

2,404,021 

2,632,067 

3,426,861 

2,387,12s 

783,389 

1,769,257 

1,463,701 

77,407 

1,296.372 

939,629 

646,872 

636,547 

548.889 

1,356.621 

431.866 

194.402 

449.396 

2,028,283 

360,350 

334-162 

55.036 

437,571 

255.912 

1,299.809 

10,350,6404 

13,275 

22,858 

8,056 

26,0515 



113 

194 

420 

49 

286 

479 

14s 

55 

49 

57 

217 

52 

S66 

38 

60 

56 

141 

39 

81 

38 

115 

45 

25 

49 
33 
63 
17 
17 
43 
47 
22 
29 



7292 
39 
378 
89 
63 
43 
104 
197 



1 Actual land area, excluding water. Fourteenth Census of the United States: 1920. 

2 Fourteenth Census of the United States. 

3 Gross area (land and inclosed water;. 

4 Figures refer to December 19 18. 

5 Figures refer to Novernber 1917. 



Ixxxii 



The Appendix 



GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES' 

Showing the Steady Increase in the Percentage of Tojun and City Population 



Census Ybars 



Total 
Population - 



1790. 
1800 . 
1810. 
1820. 
1850. 
1840. 
1850. 
1 860 . 
1870. 
1S80. 
1890. 
1000 . 

IQIO . 
1920. 



3,929,314 

5,308,483 

7.239.881 

9.638,453 

I 2,866,020 

17,069,453 

23,191,876 

31,443.321 

38.5S8.37i 

50,155.783 

62,947.714 

75.994. 57S 
91,972,266 
105.710.620 



Population 
Living in 
Cities 3 



131.472 
210,873 
356.920 
475.135 
864,509 
453.994 
89 7. 5 86 
072,256 
071.87 s 
365.698 
244.239 
918,335 
570,334 
,307.640 



Per«*Dt*c< 

of Peput&- 

tioD 'l.lTlBit 

m CItUi 



1 From Fourteenth Census of the United States. 

2 Exclusive of outlying possessions. 

3 Places of 8,000 inhabitants or more are here designated as cities. 



3-3 

4.0 

4-9 

4-9 

6.7 

8.5 

12. 5 

I 6.1 

20.9 

22.7 

29.0 

32.9 

38.7 

43.8 



of ClIlM 
ofS.Ol") 

talit*3 



6 

6 

1 1 

13 

26 

44 

8S 

141 

226 

285 

445 

547 

768 

924 



GROSS AREA OF THE UNITED STATES* 

IncluditiR Land and Water 



Census Years 



1790 

1800 

1 8 1 o( Louisiana i)urchase,i8o3) 
1 82o( Florida cession. 1819) ... 

1830 

1840 

i8so(Texas accession, 1845, and 

\Iexican cession, 1848)... 

i86o(Gadsden purchase, 185 3). 

i87o(Alaska purchase, 1867).. 

1S80 

1890 

1900 Hawaii (annexed, 1898) 
Porto Rico (ceded by 



Gross Area 

in Square 

Miles 



892, 
1,720, 
1.792 
1.792 
1,792, 

2.997. 
3.026, 
3.617. 
3.617, 
3.617. 
3.742, 



13s 
13s 
122 
,223 
,223 
223 

119 

789 
673 
673 
673 
870 



Census Years 



iCjross Area 

in Square 

Miles 



Spain, 1899) 
Guam (ceded by Spain, 

1809) 
Philippines (purchased 

from Spain, 1899) 
Samoa (by treaty with 

Great Britain and 

Germany, 1000) 
Panama Canal Zone (by 

treaty with Panama. 

1904) 
Virgin Islands (purchased 

from Denmark 19 17) 



3.743.397 



3.743.5-'9 



I Based on the Fourteenth Census of the United States. 

FACTS ABOUT OUR POSSESSIONS 



Name 



Alaska . . . . 

Hawaii . . . 
PortoRico. 
Guam 



Philippines 

American 
Samoa .... 

Panama 
Canal Zone 

Virgin 
Islands. . . . 



How Acquired 



( By purchase 

I from Russia 

Annexed 



Ceded by Spain 



;f 



(By purchase 
( from Spain 
(Treaty with 
Great Britain 
( and German 
(Treaty with Re'- i 
- public of Pan- V 
I ama ) 

1 By purchase r 
1 from Denmark ^ 



When 
Acquired 



Mar. 30, 1867 
July 6, 1898 

Feb. 6. 1899 

Feb. 16, 1900 

Feb. 23, 1904 

Feb. 19, 1917 



Government 



Territory 

Territory .... 

I Civil Govern 
mentbyCon 

f gress 

^ Civil Govern 
- mentbyC 

f gress 

1 Civil Govern- ) 
i ment by Con- V 
I gress S 

Civil Govern- ] 
ment by Con- 
gress . 



Area in 
Square 
Miles 1 



Popula- 
tion! 






590,884 
6,449 
3.435 

2X0 
115,026 



55.036 

255.912 

1.299,809 

13.27s 

10,350,640 

8,056 
22,858 
26,051 



1 Prom Fourteenth Census. 



Tlie Appendix 



Ixxxiii 







cj o o > rt rt 









4> 4) O ^ ^ 



g g ^ 2 J3 ^^Xl gj3 g X! 
uji^ojouyg 3 a =1 333c=lc 3 

Q Q ^ ^Q^^QQ e^ ed rt PiO!;p:;QrtQ rt 



a. 0, c a 

0/ OJ <U OJ 



OV I M 

W ^ O 
*"£ 00 



•c » 






i> .LT 

O M m 

00 00 w 

M M 00 

« to * 

E EE 



. ■ >^ d 

00 o> CUT] r~ 

"flOO QO 






M 00 "^^ 

i g1 

m oj G 



o I -.-11 

E t o o >« « 

00 ?. C 00 CO 
M M q C M M 



S w 00 ofmoooooo ° 
J Ov 1 rt ". .L i i. ,„" 



?; ?;oo •^"Mooooov^; cooi 

E K noounOoooooo g KO\Ov> 



E't rE"E E "r E £«"?£££' E 

+-. >i ,^+J ■*-> +J >^ +J +-> C >,*fJ *-» +-> 4J 



r „ D oj c 





^ " 


" 


^ 


^.« 


« M 


M PO M M M M M 


" 


ro « 


MvO r<5" w M 


" 


ro 


" <NW 


■o 

v 

5 


8!^ 

t»00 


00 

M 


o 

00 


M 00 
IV) tT 

00 t» 


00 00 

l-t tH 


M D O. O ^OlOO 

tt vO 't >« t^o>o 

00 00 00 00 00 00 00 


00 


I/) lO 
t^ 00 

M 00 


ro -"O 00 -^ 00 
OvoocO poo 

00 00 CC 0^ O 0» 


o 
a 







i~ N to o>0'tO'*> 
o 00 r* o\ O\oo o o o> 



00 t^\0 lO 



M <s i-< O r^ ro t^ 
r»r»r^oboor^ oo 00 00 oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo oo 



o .„ .t3 



C rt 
'Sb 'S) w 






>S > > >S H IS 



JO'" 



n5 
f c 

Oj d 



« g S .2.2&fe;i^ .2 
« H M OOZZhSZ O 



2 &.2 
020 



cffi 



« 



cC g 4> 



S S3 



^ O O 

"o >>E 



fe t; 4) CO O 



3K 
> 

t;3§csx:^ 

c«r::.2x: E o:t: 
•;> i- o aji^ 
<5 [> >— ,1— iN 'S 



,Eoa 



tfl o J<U 



Qt3 

•is c 

a! "a; 

m 5^ 



S'-P 



> 



rt E 



> a 



o c o — 3; 
3pqO ^ H 



,2 "g .3-g ^ 

o a 



2 c 



oooi O'-iNt^'^i'J'O t-*oo 0\0H»Nf0^io>c r*ooo 



Ixxxi'v 



The . \p/>(ni/i.v 



SOME STATISTICS OF THE UNITED vSTATES 



States 
riiii Union 



No. Rrpn 



Alabama 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

District of Columbia . 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey 

New Mexico 

New York 

North Carolina 

North Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode Island 

South Carolina 

South Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

West Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 



United States 435 



Nun)I>iT 'if 
Cliildrcn in 

Sch(n)ls, 
1917-19183 



573.762 

67.973 

461.591 

602,758 

200,763 

243,880 

37.137 

61,536 

106,405 

679,661 

104.737 

1,088,301 

564.152 

530,375 

405.319 

533.355 

325.571 

140.774 

235.268 

630,878 

655.941 

488,333 

540,756 

664.412 

122,000 

300,01 1 

14.518 

66.021 

562,319 

85.677 

1.666,589 

634.250 

168,034 

951.960 

551.36s 

145.891 

1. 514.984 

91.864 

394.467 

138.485 

591.346 

1,098.989 

1 10.193 

62,049 

481,139 

262.829 

317.144 

449.403 

38.271 



Per rent of 

Total 
Population 

Knrollcd 
1017-1918 3 



20.853.516 



17 


.3 


18 


. 


17 


.0 


16 


■ 5 


20 


•9 


20 


8 


27 


.0 


19 


.2 


25 


I 


23 


1 


12 


7 


14 


8 


18 


3 


19 


6 


15 


7 


25 


7 


21 


2 


18 


I 


23 


2 


16 


4 


17 


2 


14 


4 


23 


8 


18 


8 


25 


5 


23 


9 


24 


3 


16 


9 


21 . 


5 


15. 


8 



17.6 



19.8 



Expended 
for Schools, 
1917-19183 



J6,o66.204 

3.533.433 

4.994.759 

34.115,891 

9.733.221 

10,669.633 

875.876 

3. 183.871 

4.674,111 

7.612,060 

5.178,84s 

51,506,043 

27.577.705 

29,277.854 

17.102,644 

8.355.991 

6,018,452 

4,431.108 

5.983.835 

31.087.788 

32,121,246 

24.997.003 

4.263.954 

22,888,591 

9,308,062 

14.381,857 

802,548 

3.138,346 

30,244,431 

3,871,908 

81,058,361 

6,544.320 

9,894.125 

50.498,015 

14,166,210 

7.530.262 

69.520.247 

4.048.771 

4.965.037 

7.081.903 

7.702.014 

24. 557.692 

5.356.554 

2.536.779 

8.304.507 

IS. 263.979 

6.991.033 

17.656.591 

2.004.419 



763,678.089 



1 The number of representatives is fixed by Congress every ten years. January 19, 1921, 
it was provided that there should be one representative for every 242,267 persons. (See 
Constitution, Art. I., Sec. 2.) 

2 To find the number of electors, add two to the number of representatives. (See 
Constitution, Art. II., Sec. 1.) In 1920 there were 531 electoral votes and 266 were 
necessary for election. 

* Bulletin, 1920, No. 11, Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education. 



A PRONOUNCING INDEX 



Webster's New International Diclionary has been used as the authority 
for spelHng and pronunciation, except in the case of certain foreign names, 
where the Century Dictionary of Names has been used. 



Acadia (d-ka'd!t-a) 
Aguinaldo (a-gfe-nal'do) 
Alamance (Sl'd-mans) 
Alamo (a'la-mo) 
Albemarle (al'bfe-marl) 
Algonqtiin (al-gGg'Idn) 
Allegheny (al'fe-ga'nK) 
Americus Vespucius (d-mer'K-kws 

ves-pfl'shiis) 
Amerigo Vespucci (a-mi-re'go ves- 

poot'che) 
Amherst (S.m'erst) 
Andre (an'dra or Sn'drl) 
Annapolis (d-nSp'6-Hs) 
Antietam (an-te'tam) 
Appomattox (ap'o-mat'wks) 
Arkansas (ar'kdn-s6') 
Armistead (ar'mls-ted) 
Asia (a'shd or a'zhd) 
Azores (d-zorz') 
Bahama (bd-ha'md) 
Balboa (bal-bo'a) 
Balfour (bal'f66r) 
Barbados (bar-ba'doz) 
Bartholomeu (bar-to'lo-me'fi) 
Bartolozzi (bar-t6-16t'se) 
Beaufort (bfl'fert) 
Beauregard (bo're-gard') 
Belleau Wood (bel-lo') 
Bon Homme Richard (bo-nom're- 

shar') 
Boscawen (bos'kd-wen) 
Brazil (brd-zJl') 
Breton (bret'wn) 
Buchanan (bw-kan'dn) 
Buell (ba'el) 
Buena Vista (bwa' na vis' ta) 



Cabot, Sebastian{s&-ha.s,'c]\an kab'wt) 

Cabral (ka-bral') 

Calhoun (kal-hoon') 

Canaries or Canary Islands (kd-na' 

riz) 
Carranza (kar-ran'tha) 
Cartier (kar'tya') 
Caspian (kas' pK an) 
Cavite (ka-ve-ta') 
Cerro Gordo (ser' ro g6r'do) 
Cervera (thar-va'ra) 
Champlain (sham-plan') 
Chapultepec (cha-pool'ta-pek') 
Chateau-Thierry (sha' to'-te e' re') 
Chatham (chat'cm) 
Chautauqua (shd-t6'kwd) 
Cherbourg (sher'boor') 
Chesapeake (ches'd-pek) 
Chickamauga (chik'd-md'gd) 
Chippewa (chip'e-wa) 
Choate (chot), Rufus 
Churubusco (choo-roo-bobs'ko) 
Claiborne (kla'bdrn) 
Constantinople (k6n-stSn'tI-no'p'l) 
Contreras (kon-tra'ras) 
Corinth (kor'inth) 
Coronado (kor-o-na'do) 
Cortes (k6r-tas') 
Culpepper (kul'pSp-er) 
Da Gama (da ga'ma) 
Dahlgren (d&l'gren) 
Darien (da'ri-en') 
Deutschland (doich'lant) 
Bias, (de' ash) Bartholomeu 
Duplessis (dii'ple'se') 
Duquesne (dii'kan') 
Durand (dia-rS,nd'), Asher 



(Ixxxv) 



Ixxxvi Mace's School History of the Vniicd States 



Durham (durV/m) 

Eaton, Tlicophilus (thd^-fifl-lusc'l/in) 

El Cancy (6\ ka'nS) 

Ericson, Lcif (Icf er 'Ik-sun) 

Estaing d' (dSs'tSN') 

Euphrates (ta-fra'tez) 

European (Q'r6-pe'dn) 

Eutaw (Q't6) 

Fatieuil (f3,n"l) 

Farragut (fir'a-gut) 

Foch (fosh) 

Frederica (fred'er-e'ko) 

Fremont (fr6-m6nt') 

Frobisher (fr6b'i(sh-€r) 

Frontenac (fr6N't'-nak') 

Gainsborough (ganz'b'r6) 

Gallatin {g^Vd-Mn) 

Gaspe (gas'pa') 

Genet (zhe-ne') 

Genoa (jgn'6-d) 

Gettysburg (get'Iz-bilrg) 

Ghirlandaio, Domenico (d6-ma'n$- 

ko ger-lan-da'yO) 
Gila (he'la) 
Gorges, Ferdinando (fer'd!-nSn'dO 

g6r'jgs) 
Granada (grii-na'tha) 
Guadalupe Hidalgo (gwa'tha-loo'pa 

6-thal'gO) 
Guam (gwam) 
Guerriere (gSr-ryar') 
Guiana, or Guyana (g6-a'na) 
Guilford (gil'ferd) 
Gustavus Adolphus (gus-ta'vjils d- 

dSl'fMs) 
Hawaii (ha-wl'e) 
Hennepin (hgn'6-pln) 
Hesse (h§s) 
Holyoke (hol'yok) 
Houston (hQs'tttn) 
Huerta (wSr'ta) 
Huguenot (hQ'ge-n6t) 
Iroquois (!r'6-kwoi') 



Jamaica (jd-ma'ku) 

Jerusalem (j*-r(30'sd-16m) 

Joffre (zh6'fr') 

Kaskaskia (kSs-kSs'kl-d) 

Kearney (kar'nl) 

Kearsarge (ker'sarj) 

Kennesaw (k2n-6-s6') 

Kieft (keft) 

Kuklux (kQ'kluks') 

Ladrones (Id-drOnz') 

Lafayette (la'fa'ySt') 

La Salle (la sal') 

Leiden (li'den) 

Leister (lis'lSr) 

Lisbon (Hz'bMn) 

Louisburg (loo'Is-burg) 

Louisiana (loo e'-zS-S'nd, 

Luzon (l6o-z6n') 

Lyceum (ll-se'dm) 

Macedonian (mSs'^-do'iiI-dn) 

Magellan, Fernando (f6r-nan'dO 

md-jercn) 
Magna Ghana (mSg'nc kar'td) 
Manassas (md-nSs'ds) 
Marco Polo (mar'kO pO'lO) 
Marquette (mar'ket') 
Massasoit (mSs'd-soit') 
Maumee (m6-me') 
Mediterranean (mfd'I-tfr-a'n^-dn) 
Mempliis (mem'fls) 
Menendez (ma-nfin'dath) 
Minuit (mln'6-lt) 
Mobile (m6-ber) 
Modoc (mo'dok) 
Monterey (m6n-te-ra') 
Alonticello {iw6\\-tt -■?£[' 6) 
Aloultrie (mol'tri) 
Murfreesboro (mur'fr$s-bur-6) 
Narragansetl (n3,r'd-gin's5t) 
Narvaez (nar-vii-aih') 
Newfoundland (nQ'fjJnd-lind') 
New Orleans (dr'lt-dnz) 
Niagara (nl-Sg'd-rd) 



A Pronouncing Index 



Ixxxvii 



Nottinghamshire (iiot'ing-cm-sher) 

Nova Scotia (no'vd sko'shyd) 

Nueces (nwa'cfes) 

Oglethorpe (o'g'l-thbrp) 

Oklahoma (O'kld-ho'md) 

Orinoco (o'rl-no'ko) 

Oriskany (6-r3(s'kd-nI) 

Osage (O-saj') 

Palo Alto (pa'lO al'to) 

Palos (pa'los) 

Pamlico (pS,m'li[-ko) 

Peabody (pe'b6d-i() 

Pequoi (pe'kwot) 

Pershing (per'shlng) 

Philippine (fU'Ip-ln) 

Pizarro (pi-zar' ro, p6-thar'rO) 

Plymouth (pUrn'Mth) 

Potice de Leon (pon'tha da la-On') 

Pontine (pon'tl-Sk) 

Porto Rico (pOr'tO re'ko) 

Porto Santo (por't6& san'tdb) 

Portugal (por't^-gdl) 

Portuguese (por't^-gez) 

Pototnac (p6-to'mdk) 

Powhatan (pou'hd-tan') 

Presbyterian (prez'bi-te'ri-dn) 

Pulaski (pu-las'kl) , Count 

Raleigh (rd'H) 

Resaca de la Palma (ra-sa'ka da la 

pal'ma) 
Rio de Janeiro (re' o da zhd-na' ro) 
Rio Grande (re'o gran'da) 
Robcrval (ro'ber'val') 
Rochambeau (ro'shaN.'bo') 
Roosevelt (ro'ze-velt) 
Rosecrans (ro'ze-kranz) 
Saco (s6'ko) 

St. Augustine (sant 6'g«s-ten) 
5^ Louis (sant loo' Is) 
Salamanca (sal-d-mig'kd) 
San Jacinto (sSn ja-sln'to) 
San Juan (san hwan') 
Santiago (san't^-a'go) 



Schley (sli) 

Schofield (sko'feld) 

Schuyler (ski'ler) 

Serapis (se-ra'pis) 

Seward (su'erd) 

Seymour (sfi'mor) 

Shenandoah (shen'dn-do'd) 

Shiloh (shi'lo) 

Sioux (soo) 

Slidell (sli-del') 

Steuben (stG'ben), Friedrich Wilhehn 

Stuyvesant (sti've-scnt) 

Tecumseh (tS-kum'se) 

Thames (temz) 

Ticonderoga (ti-kon'der-o'gd) 

Tippecanoe (tJp'e-kd-noo') 

Toombs (toomz) 

Toscanelli (tos-ka-nel'le) 

Tuscaroras (tu^'kc-ro'rds) 

Tuskegee (tus-ke'ge) 

Utah (Q'to, or Q'ta) 

Utrecht (u'traHt) 

Vandyke (van-dik') 

Van Rensselaer (van ren'se-ler) 

Venezuela (ven'e-zwe'ld) 

Venice (ven'is) 

Vera Cruz (va'ra kroos) 

Verplanck (ver-plagk') 

Verrazano (ver'rat-sa'nO) 

Versailles (ver salz') 

Villa (ve'ya) 

Vincennes (vin-senz') 

Vineland (vKn'land) 

Viviani (ve-vya'ne) 

Wampanoag (wom'pd-no'ag) 

Wesley (wes'H) 

Weyler (wa'ler) 

Whalley (hwol'i) 

Wilkes (wHks) 

Winkelman (vir)k'el-man) 

Zipangu (z][-par)'g«) 

Zuccaro (tzook'ka-ro) 

Zuni (zoo'nye) 



THE INDEX 



{The references are to pages in the text of the book.) 
A. American. E. English. F. French. U. Union. C. Confederate' 



ABERCROMBIE, General James (E.). i2<), 
130. 

Abolition, societies formed, 300; in the 
District of Columbia, 301, 315, 318; by 
Mexico, 30,5. 

Abraham, Heights of, 132. 

Acadia (Nova Scotia), 17, 124, 128. 

Acts and Bills in Congress, method of pro- 
cedure. 210. See also Congress, and 
special names of acts. 

Acts of Parliament, affecting the colonies, 
38, 136-137; leading to the Revolution, 
139, 140, 145. 148. 151-152. 177. 

Adams, Charles Francis, candidate for 
Vice-Presidency, 312; minister to Eng- 
land. 373- 

Adams, John, portrait, 231; in the First 
Continental Congress, 153; in the Sec- 
ond Continental Congress, 159; and 
the movement for independence, 163- 
164; and the treaty of peace, 195-196; 
minister to England, 207; elected Vice- 
President, 221; elected President, 230- 
231; defeated by Jefferson, 233-234. 

Adams, John Quincy, portrait, 269; and 
the Monroe Doctrine, 267-268; elected 
President, 269; and the National Re- 
publican, or Whig, party, 270; defeated 
by Jackson, 272-273; defends the right 
of petition. 301-302; death of, 302. 

Adams, Samuel, portrait, 146; opposes 
Stamp Act, 142; demands removal of 
British Troops, 147; and Committees of 
Correspondence, 149; and the tea ships, 
ISO; in the First Continental Congress, 
152-153; escapes British, 152, 15s; and 
the Constitution, 207, 212. 

Adamson Law, 473. 

Admiralty Courts, 140. 

Africa, early voyages around, 4-5. 

"Age of Radio," 495- 

Agricultural Colleges, established, 444; ap- 
prnpriations. 473. 

Agriculture, in the colonies, 31, 43, 52, 
113, 114-115; in 1790, 215; effect of 
inventions on, 285-288; later improve- 
ments in, 418-421, 423-424, 427; in the 
New South, 428, 431. 

Aguinaldo, Philippine leader, 457. 

Airplanes, 4<)7, 479. 

Alabama, admitted. 258; secedes, 333. 

" Alabama," Confederate cruiser, 373, 
305. 

Alabama Claims, 395-396. 

Alamance, Ijatllo of, 147. 

Alamo, battle of the, 303-304. 

Alaska, purchase of, 395. 

Alaska Boundary Dispute, 462-463. 

(lx.\xviii) 



Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition, 467. 

Albany (Fort Orange), founded, 77, 78; 
named, 83; in 1750, 96; colonial con- 
ference at, 126-127. 

Albany Plan of Union, 126-127. 

Albemarle, N. C, founded, 46. 

" Albemarle," Confederate ram, destroyed, 
374. 

Algonquin Indians, 24, 80, 11 7-1 18. 

Alien and Sedition Laws, 232, 233. 

Allen, Ethan, takes Ticonderoga, 160. 

Amendments, see Conslitution. 

America, Central, expeditions against, 
283; revolution in, 446. 

America, North, visited by the Northmen, 
2; discovered by Columbus, 10; nam- 
ing of, 12; exploration of, 1-25; colo- 
nization of. 25-95; struggle between the 
English and French for, 1 17-135; the 
Revolution in, 136-197; the Monroe 
Doctrine, 267-268, 394. 395. 

America, South, visited by Columbus, 13; 
the Spanish in, 14, 267, 446; revolu- 
tions in, 267; the Monroe Doctrine, 267- 
268, 414. 

American Association, 154. 

American Flag, see Flags. 

American Party, see " Knownolhing" Parly. 

American Revolution, see Revolution. 

" American System," 270. 

Amherst, General Jeffrey (£.), 130, 131. 

Amnesty, proclamations of, 386, 387; Act 
of. 304. 

Amundsen, Captain Roald, 468. 

Anarchists' Riot, 441. 

Anderson, Major Robert (I/.), at Fort 
Sumter, 334. 337-338. 

Andr£, Major John (£.), capture and exe- 
cution of, 184. 

Andros, Sir Edmund, portrait, 68; strikes 
at New England liberty, 67-68, 74; «n 
New York, 84. 

Annapolis (Port Royal), 124. 

Annapolis, Md., Congress meets in, 196- 
197; trade convention in, 206. 

Annexation, of Texas, 304-306; of Hawaii, 
454- 

Anthony Amendment, 486. 

Antietam (Sharpsburg), battle of, 357. 

Anti-Masonic Party, 274. 

Anti-Rent Riots, 279. 

Anti-Slavery Movement, beginnings of, 
259-260; revival of, 299-302. See also 
Abolition. .Shivery, l-'.maniipiiti(m. Gar- 
rison. William Llovil. etc. 

Anti-Slaver> Party, formed, 302. See also 
Liberty I'arty. 

Appomattox, Lee's surrender at, 377- 

sewed 



The Index 



Ixxxix 



Arbitration, 395-396, 413, 414, 442. 

Archdale, John, Quaker governor of the 
Carolinas, 47. 

Area of the United States, doubled by pur- 
chase of Louisiana, 237; in i860, 279- 
280; increased by purchase of Alaska, 
395. 

Argall, Samuel, royal go^-ernor, 31. 

Arizona, admitted, 468. 

Arkansas, admitted, 282; secedes, 340; 
the Civil War in, 349. 35 1- 

Arlington, Lord, receives grant of Virginia, 
39- 

Armistead, General Lewis A. (C), at the 
battle of Gettysburg, 361. 

Armistice, agreed upon, 481-482; signing 
of, 487; terms of, 487. 

Army United States, beginning of, 179; 
dissatisfaction in, 200, 201; increased 
for war with France, 231-232; reduced 
by Jefferson, 236; in 1812, 247; in the 
war with Mexico, 307-310; advantages 
of, in the war for the Union, 341 ; losses 
of, 379, 380, 381; in the war with Spain, 
450, 452, 455; in China, 458; on Mexi- 
can border, 474; preparation of, for 
European War, 478-479; in France, 481. 

Arnold, General Benedict (.4.), at Quebec, 
160; at Bemis Heights, 175; treachery 
of, 183-184; with Comwallis in the 
South, 192. 

Art, American, 266. 

Arthur, Chester A., portrait, 405; elected 
Vice-President, 404; succeeds to the 
Presidency, 405; authorizes building 
of a steel navy, 437. 

Articles of Confederation, see Conjederation, 
Articles of. 

Ashburton Treaty, 306. 

Assemblies, colonial, see Colonial Assemblis. 

"Assistants," governors', 58, 60, 61. 

Assumption Bill, 223-224. 

Atlantic Cable, 293-294. 

Atchison, Kan., settled, 322. 

Atlanta, Sherman's campaign against, 
372; exposition at, 433. 

Augusta, Ga., British driven from, 191. 

Automobile, invention of, 438. 

Aviators, training schools for, 479-480. 

BACON'S REBELLION, 39-40. 

Balboa, Vasco Nunez, Spanish explorer, 
discovers the Pacific, 15. 

Balfour, Arthur J., England sends, 476. 

Baltimore, Md., in 1750, 96; in 1790, 214; 
attack on, 253-254; riot in, 341. 

Baltimore, Lord, see Calvert. 

Bancroft, George, American historian, 266. 

Bank, United States, established, 224; 
loses charter, 256; rechartered, 256- 
257; favored by the Whigs, 270, 274; 
destroyed by Jackson, 274-275; re- 
placed by the Independent Treasury, 
276, 278-279. 

Banks, state, 256-257, 270, 275, 294, 384; 
"wildcat" and "pet," 275-276; national, 
384, 469, 471. 

Banks, General Nathaniel P. (t/.), in the 
Shenandoah Valley, 354, 35s; receives 
surrender of Port Hudson, 364. 

Baptists, in the colonies, 38, 81. 



Barbary States, war with, 241. 

"Barnburners," 312. 

Barton, Clara, portrait, 449; leads Red 

Cross work in Cuba, 449. 
"Battle Above the Clouds," 366. 

Bay Colony, see Massachusetts. 

Bay Psalm Book, 109. 

Beaufort, battle of, 352. 

Beauregard, General P. G. T. (C.), takes 
Fort Sumter, 338; in command of 
Confederate forces, 342; at first battle 
of Bull Run, 342-343; at battle of 
Pittsburg Landing (Shiloh), 351; suc- 
ceeded by Bragg, 353- 

Belleau Wood, Americans win glory at, 48 1 . 

Bellomont, royal governor, 116. 

Bemis Heights, battle of, 175. 

Bennington, battle of, 173-174. 

Benton, Thomas Hart, and the Compro- 
mise of 1850, 315. 

Bentonville, battle of, 376. 

Bering Sea Case, 413. 

Berkeley, Lord John, receives granl of 
New Jersey, 86. 

Berkeley, Sir WilUam, royal governor, 36; 
defies Cromwell, 37; reelected, 38; and 
Bacon's rebellion, 39-40; deposed, 40. 

Berlin Decree, 242. 

Beverly, battle of, 343. 

Bicycle, invention of, 438. 

Bill of Rights, 211, 212. 

Bills and Acts in Congress, method of pro- 
cedure, 210. 

Bimetallism, 413, 414-415, 458. 

Birney, James Gillespie, anti-slavery can- 
didate for the Presidency, 302, 304. 

"Black RepubUcans," 323. 

Bladensburg, battle of, 254. 

Blaine, James G., portrait, 406; candi- 
date for the Presidency, 406. 

Blair, Francis Preston, Union leader in 
Missouri, 349; candidate for Vice-Presi- 
dency, 391. 

Blair, James, founds College of William 
and Mary, 40-41. 

Bland, Richard P., portrait, 403; author 
of silver bill, 403. 

Bland Silver Bill, passed, 403; amended, 
410. 

Blockade, of European ports, 241-242; of 
Southern ports, 345-346, 387; in Euro- 
pean war, 475. See also iim6argo .4f/. 

"Blue Laws," 73. 

Body of Liberties, 62-63. 

Bonds, Government, 384, 385, 391,408, 477. 

" Bon Homme Richard," Paul Jones's ship, 
i8s and 185, note i. 

Boone, Daniel, portrait, 180; settles Ken- 
tucky, 181. 

Booth, John Wilkes, Lincoln's assassin, 378. 

"Border Ruffians," 323. 

Border States, in the Civil War, 348-354. 

Boscawen, Admiral (E.), 130. 

Boston, settlement of, 58-59; in 1750, 96; 
resists oppression, 139-140, 147, 149- 
150, 152; the British in, 152, 155, 157; 
evacuation of, 161; great fire in, 398. 

Boston Latin School, 63. 

Boston Massacre, 147. 

"Boston News Letter," 109. 

Boston Port Bill, 151. 



xc 



The Index 



Boston Tea Party, 1 49-1 so. 

Boycott, 440. 

Braddock, General Edward (£.). defeat of, 
127-128. 

Bradford, Governor William, of Plymouth, 
56. 

Bragg, General Braxton (C), invades Ken- 
tucky, 353-354; at C'hickamauga and 
Chattanooga, 365-366; succeeded by 
Johnston, 366. 

Brandywine, battle of the, I7i-I72- 

Brant, Joseph, Indian chief, 180. 

Bread Riots, 276. 

Breckinridge, John C, candidate for the 
Vice-Presidency, 325; in the campaign 
of i860, 330, Hi. 

Breed's Hill, sec Bunker Hill. 

Brewster, William, Pilgrim elder, 54, 56. 

Brooklyn, N. Y., in 1870, 417. 

Brooklyn Heights, fortification of, 166, 167. 

Brooks, Congressman Preston, assaults 
Sumner in the Senate, 324. 

Brown, Benjamin Gratz, candidate for the 
Vice-Presidency. 396. 

Brown, General Jacob (.4.), 253. 

Brown, John, in Kansas, 323; captures 
arsenal at Harper's Ferry, 329; exe- 
cuted, 329. 

Brown University, founded, 108. 

Bryan, William Jennings, portrait, 414; 
candidate for the Presidency, 414-415, 
4S8, 459. 466. 

Bryant, William Cullen, poet, 265. 

Buchanan, Captain Franklin (C), in com- 
mand of the "Merrimac," 347-348. 

Buchanan, James, portrait, 325; and the 
struggle in Kansas, 324; and the Dred 
Scott Decision, 326; refuses to punish 
secession, 334. 

Buckner, General Simon B. (C), surren- 
ders Fort Donelson, 350. 

Buell, General Don Carlos (f/.), at battle 
of Shiloh, 351; at battle of Perryville, 
353; succeeded by Rosecrans, 353. 

Buena Vista, battle of, 308. 

Buffalo, and the Erie Canal, 262; rail- 
roads to, 291; scene of McKinley's 
assassination, 459. 

Bull Run (Manassas Junction), first battle 
of, 342-343; second battle of, 357. 

Bunker Hill, battle of, 158-159; monu- 
ment, 267. 

Burgesses, House of, established, 32-33; 
government of, 3i, 38, 40; ceremonies 
at opening, 100; Patrick Henry's 
speech in, 143; appoints Committee of 
Correspondence, 149. 

Burgoyne, General John {E.). invasion of, 
172-173; surrender of, 175-176; effect 
of surrender, 176-177. 

Burke, Edmund, portrait, 144; opposes 
the king, 138; favors repeal of the 
Stamp Act, 144; pleads for conciliation, 
154; denounces use of Indians by the 
English, 177. 

Burnside, General Ambrose E. ((/.), suc- 
ceeds McClellan. 357; at buttle of Fred- 
ericksburg, 359; succeeded by Hooker, 
359; protects East Tennessee, 366. 

Burr, Aaron, candidate for the Presidency, 
234; treason of, 238. 



Business Corporations and "Trusts," 439. 

Business Panics, sec Panics. 

Butler, General Benjamin F. {U.), takes 
New Orleans, 352-353; and the "con- 
trabands." 357; candidate for the Presi- 
dency, 406. 

Butler, Colonel John, Tory leader in Wyo- 
ming Valley massacre, 180. 



CABLE, Atlantic, 293-294. 

Cabinet, President's, formation of. 222. 

Cabot, John and Sebastian, English ex- 
plorers, 13. 

Cabral, Pedro Alvares, Portuguese ex- 
plorer, II. 

Calhoun, John Caldwell, portrait, 298; 
advises war against England, 246; votes 
for protective tarifT, 257; elected Vice- 
President, 269; and nullification, 298; 
and the war with Mexico, 307; and the 
Compromise of 1850, 316. 

California, conquest of, 309, 311; admis- 
sion of, 313. 314. 318; gold in, 313. 314. 

Calvert, Cecil, second Lord Baltimore, 
portrait, 45; settles Maryland, 42. 

Calvert, George, first Lord Baltimore, por- 
trait, 41; receives grant of Maryland, 
42. 

Cambridge, Mass., settlement of, 59; 
named, 63. 

Camden, Lord, opposes the Stamp Act, 
144. 

Camden, S. C, battle of, 187-188. 

Canada, the French in, 16, 17, 77-78, 117; 
conquered by the English. 133; invasions 
of, 160, 248, 253; in the Revolution, 
160-161, 165, 172, 175. 

Canals, Congress refuses to aid, 261-262; 
building of, 262-263. See also Erie 
Canal. Panama Canal, and Internal Im- 
provements. 

Canby, General E. R. S. ([/.), receives sur- 
render of General Smith, 378; murdered 
by the Indians, 425. 

Canteens, af European War, 484. 

Cape of Good Hope, named, 5. 

Capital of the United States, 222, 224, 235. 

Carolinas, settlement of, 45-49; division 
of, 47; diflerences between, 48-49. 
See also North and South Carolina. 

Carpenters' Hall, 152, 153. 

"Carpetbaggers," 391, 392, 401, 402. 

Carranza, 471. 474. 

Carroll, Charles, of CarroUton, 263. 

Carteret, Sir George, receives grant of New 
Jersey, 86. 

Carteret, Philip, settles New Jersey, 86. 

Cartier, Jacques, French explorer, 16. 

Carver, John, first governor of Plymouth, 
55. 

Cass, Lewis, candidate for the Presidency, 
312. 

Caswell, Colonel Richard (.4.), at battle of 
Moore's Creek, 161-162. 

Catholics, settle Maryland, 41-4S; carry 
religion lo the Indians, 119, 120. 

Caucus, pulitical, 274. 

Cavaliers, in \'irginia, 37. 

Cedar Creek, battle of, 371-372. 

Cemetery Ridge, 360, 361. 



The Index 



xci 



Census, of 1790. 214; of i860, 280; of 
1870, 417; of 1900, 430. 

Centennials, see Expositions. 

Central America, expeditions against, 283. 

Central Pacific Railroad, building of, 416. 

Cerro Gordo, battle of, 309-310. 

Cervera, Spanish admiral, 4SI-4S3- 

Chadds Ford (Brandywine), battle at, 171. 

Chambersburg, Pa., burning of, 371. 

Champion Hills, battle of, 363. 

Champlain, Lake, battle of, 253. 

Champlain, Samuel, French explorer, por- 
trait, 17; founder of Quebec, 17, 117; 
and the Indians, 117-118. 

Chancellorsville, battle of, 359-360. 

Chapultepec, battle of, 310. 

Charles I., portrait, 36; his troubles with 
the Puritans, 35-36, 58, 62, 64, 89; 
makes grant of Maryland, 42. 

Charles II., comes to the throne, 37, 38; 
removes Berkeley from office, 40; makes 
grant of Carolina, 46; and the New Eng- 
land colonies, 67, 70, 73, 76; and New 
York, 83; makes grant of Pennsylva- 
nia, 91. 

Charleston, S. C, founded, 46; in 1750, 96; 
attacked by the British, 162; captured 
by the British, 186; in 1790, 214; taken 
by Sherman, 376; exposition at, 433. 

Charlestown, Mass., settled, 59. 

Charters, of London Company, 25, 30, 31; 
of Plymouth Company, 25, 52; of Geor- 
gia, si; of Massachusetts, 58, 62, 64, 
67, 69; of Connecticut, 73, 74; of 
Rhode Island, 76; of Pennsylvania, 91. 

Charter Oak, 74. 

Charter of Liberties, 84. 

Chase, Salmon P., portrait, 384; and the 
Compromise of 1850, 315, 317; in Lin- 
coln's cabinet, 337. 

Chateau Thierry, Americans win glory at, 
481. 

Chatham, Lord, see Pitt, William. 

Chattanooga, battle of, 365-366. 

Chautauqua Literary Movement, 445. 

Cherokee Indians, 181. 

Cherry Valley Massacre, 180. 

"Chesapeake," American frigate, searched, 
243; defeated by the "Shannon," 250. 

Chester, Pa., assembly at, 92-93. 

Chicago (Fort Dearborn), site visited by 
early French explorers, 119, 120; taken 
by the British, 248; in i860, 280; rail- 
roads to, 291; great fire in, 398; in 
1870, 417; anarchist riot in, 441; 
World's Fair in, 443. 

Chickamauga, battle of, 365. 

Child Labor Law, 473. 

China, Boxer uprising in, 458. 

Chinese, immigration of, 397, 406. 

Chippewa, battle of, 253. 

Choate, Rufus, and abolition, 320. 

Christian Commission, 379-380. 

Christison, Wenlock, Quaker, 65. 

Chunibusco, battle of, 310. 

"Cincinnatus of the West," 197. 

Circular Letter, Massachusetts, 146. 

Circumnavigation of the Globe, 15. 

Cities, in 1790, 214; along the Erie Canal, 
263; in i860, 280; in 1870, 417; in the 
New South, 429, 430; commission form 
of government in, 470. 



Civil Rights Bill, 389. 

Civil Service Reform, 396, 404, 405. 

Civil War, see War for the Union. 

Claiborne, William, leads rebellion in 
Maryland, 43-45. 

Clark, George Rogers, portrait, 181; his 
successes in the West, 181-183. 

Clark, William, expedition with Lewis, 
238 239. 

"Clark's Grant," 204. 

Classes, see Social Classes. 

Clay, Henry, portrait, 299; Speaker of 
House, 245-246; author of the Missouri 
Compromise, 259-260; secures survey for 
the National Road, 261; candidate for 
the Presidency, 269, 274, 304; Secretary 
of State, 269; and the National Re- 
publican, or Whig, party, 270; and the 
"American System," 270; defends the 
United States Bank, 270, 274; opposes 
the Independent Treasury, 278-279; and 
the tariff of 1833, 299; frames the Com- 
promise of 1850, 314-316; death of, 321. 

"Clermont," Fulton's steamboat, 240. 

Cleveland, Grover, portrait, 407; elected 
President, 406-407; defeated by Harri- 
son, 409; reelected, 411; refuses to 
annex Hawaii, 413; and the Venezuelan 
dispute, 414. 

Clinton, Governor De Witt, and the Erie 
Canal, 262. 

Clinton, George, and the Constitution, 212. 

Clinton, Sir Henry (£.), fails to support 
Burgoyne, 176; succeeds Howe, 179; 
abandons Philadelphia, 179; in New 
York, 180, 193; in the South, 186. 

Coal, discovery of, in Pennsylvania, 288- 
289, 435; in the South, 428. 

Coal Strikes, 442. 

Cockburn, Admiral Sir George (£.), at- 
tacks Baltimore, 253. 

Coinage, see Currency. 

Cold Harbor, battle of, 370. 

Colfax, Schuyler, elected Vice-President, 
391. 

Colleges, founding of, 40-41, 63, 108, 109; 
increase of, in the South, 285, 431-432; 
in the North, 444-445. See also names 
of colleges. 

Colombia, and the Panama Canal, 461. 

Colonial Assemblies, establishment of, 
32-33. 57, 58, 60-61, 72, 73. 76, 85, 93- 

Colonies, American, planting of, 25-95; 
self-governing, 32, 55, 71-72, 84-85, 
87-88; proprietary, 41-42, 46, 70, 83, 
86; life in, 95-117; and the struggle 
for North America, 117-135; resist un- 
just taxation, 136-155; resort to arms, 
155-162; the struggle for independence, 
162-197. 

Colorado, gold discovered in, 415; ad- 
mitted, 417; woman suffrage in, 470. 

Columbia, S. C, burning of, 376 and 376, 
note I. 

Columbia River, discovery and explora- 
tion of, 239. 

Columbia University, founded, 108. 

Columbus, Christopher, portrait, 6; early 
life of, 6; in Portugal, 6, 8; thinks out 
shorter route to India, 6-7; his struggle 
for aid, 7-9; first voyage, 9-1 1 ; later 
voyages, 12-13. 



XCll 



The hidex 



Commerce, in t-arly colonial limes, 38, 67, 
05, 114-116; restricted by England, 
ijfi '37. 130-140. 145-146, 148, 151; 
under the Confederation, 201, 215; 
interfered with by England, 229, 242; 
aided by European wars, 241. 472; em- 
bargo on, 244, 245; development of, 292, 
434. 435. 455 ; of the Southern States, 
,i4=; 546. 428, 431. 

Commerce Commission, Interstate, 407. 

Commissioners, French and English ar- 
rive, 47O. 

Commission Form of Government for 
Cities, 470. 

Committees of Correspondence, 149, 151. 

Commons, House of, j2 and 32, note i. 

Compact, Mayflower, see Mayfl'rwer. 

"Compact" Theory of the Constitution, 

293. 297- 

Compromise, in the Constitution, 208, 
209; Missouri, 259, 260; tariff, 299; of 
i«5(j, 314-318; ('rittenden, 335- 

Concord, battle of, 156. 

Confederacy, Southern, formation of, 333- 
334; capital of, 340, 342, 376-377; 
army of, 342, 377, 380-381; attitude of 
foreign nations toward, 344; navy of, 
346, 373-374; and the border states, 
340, 348-349; fall of, 376-378. 

Confederation, Articles of, adopted, 198; 
Weakness of, 19.S-202. 

Confederation, New England, see New 
England C(.ufe(lenit!on. 

Congress, Continental, first, 152-154; sec- 
ond, 159-160; in the Revolution, 159- 
i6o, 162, 163-164, 171, 184; receives 
Washington's resignation, 196-197; 
weakness of, 198. 

Congress, Stamp Act, 143-144. 

Congress, United States, formation of, 207- 
20.S; workings of, 210, 211; first session 
of, 222-224; right of petition in, 301- 
302; and reconstruction, 386-390, 393- 
394; impeaches President Johnson, 390; 
declares war on Spain, 450; declares war 
1)11 (tt-rmany, 475- 

Connecticut, settlement of, 61, 70-71; and 
the New England Confederation, 65; 
adopts a written constitution, 71-72; 
colonies of, united, 73-74; charter of, 
73, 74; under Andros, 74; reserves 
western lands, 204. 

"Conservatives," 468. 

Constantinople, taken by the Turks, 3. 

Constitution, first popular in America, 7 1-72. 

Constitution of the United States, steps 
leading to, 206; making of, 207-2 1 1 ; rati- 
fication of, 2 1 1-2 13; amendments to, 21 1, 
212, 23s, 388, 389, 393. 469. 483, 486; 
"compact" theory of, 233, 297; text of, 
Ivii. 

"Constitution" ("Old Ironsides"), Amer- 
ican frigate, defeats the "Guerriere," 
248-249; defeats the "Java," 250; 
preservation of, 266. 

Constitutional Convention, 206, 207-211. 

Constitutional Union Party, 33 1- 

Continental Congress, see Congress. 

"Continentals," enlistment and training 
of, 179; at battle of Camden, 187-188; 
M battle of the Cowpens, 190. 



"Contrabands," 357. 

Contract Labor, 407. 

Contreras, battle of, 310. 

Convention, Albany, 126-127; Annapolis 
trade, 206; Hartford, 256. 

Conventions, national, 211; state, 211, 
212, 298, 332-333; nominating, forma- 
tion of, 274. 

Conway Cabal, 177-178. 

Cooper, James Fenimore, portrait, 265; 
his writings, 265. 

Cooper, Peter, philanthropist, candidate 
fur the Presidency, 400. 

"Copperheads," 368. 

Corinth, battle of, 352, 353. 

Cornwallis, Lord Charles (E.), portrait, 
193; at Trenton, 168; and the battle of 
Princeton, 170; in the South, 186-194; 
surrender of, 103-194. 

Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de, Spanish 
explorer, 16. 

Corporations, business growth of, 439. 

Cortes, Hernando, Spanish explorer, con- 
quers Me.\ico, 15, 16. 

Cosby, royal governor, no. 

Cotton, and the cotton gin, 220; manu- 
facture of, 294, 295-296, 429; export 
of, during the Civil War, 345-346; in 
the New South, 428, 429; loan, 472. 

Cotton Gin, invention of, 220-221; in- 
fluence of, on slavery, 220, 259. 

Courts, admiralty, 140; national, 199, 210, 
223, 235. 326. 

Cowpens, battle of, 190, 191. 

Crawford, William H., candidate for the 
Presidency, 269. 

Credit Mobilier, 399. 

Crittenden Compromise, 335. 

Cromwell, Oliver, portrait, 38; becomes 
ruler in England, 36; sends commission- 
ers to the colonies, 37. 44-45. 

Crown Point, abandoned by the French, 13 1. 

Crusades, 2-3. 

Cuba, discovered by Columbus, 10; cov- 
eted by the South, 283; revolution in, 
447-450; Spain and the war in, 446- 
453; American occupation of, 455-456; 
becomes a republic, 456, 459-460. 

Culpepper, Lord Thomas, receives grant of 
Virginia, 39. 

Cumberland Road, 261. 

Currency, 200, 275, 276, 384, 385, 397. 
400, 403, 410, 411, 412, 469. 

Curtis, General ({/.), at battle of Pea 
Ridge, 350-351- 

Cushing, Lieutenant William B. ((/.), de- 
stroys the "Albemarle," 374- 

Custer, General George Armstrong, mas- 
sacred by the Indians, 425-426. 

Customs, see Duties. 

DA GAMA, Vasco, Portuguese explorer, 
first to reach India by sea, 11. 

Dahlgren, Admiral John A. (U.), takes 
Fort Sumter. 376. 

Dakota Indians, 24. 

Dakota, territory of, gold discovered in, 
418. See also North and .South Dakota. 

Dale, Sir Thomas, royal governor, 31. 

Dallas, battle of, 372. 

Dalton, battle of, 372. 



The Index 



XClll 



Danish West Indies, purchased, 474-475. 

Dare, Virginia, 20. 

Dartmouth College, founded, 108. 

"Daughters of Liberty," 142. 

Davenport, John, 72-73. 

Davis, Jefferson, portrait, 333; and the 
Compromise of 1850, 315, 317-318; 
President of the Confederate States, 
333-334; capture and release of, 37S. 

Davis, John, English explorer, 18. 

Dawes, William, and Paul Revere, 155. 

Dayton, William L., first Republican can- 
didate for the V' e-Presidency, 325. 

Dearborn, General Henry (.4.), plans 
invasion of Canada, 248. 

Dearborn, Fort (Chicago), 248, 280. 

Debts, at close o French and Indian War, 
134; national, 200-201, 204, 223, 275, 
38s, 408, 45s; state, 223, 224, 285; 
of the Confederacy, 388, 389. 

Declaration of Independence, 163-165; 
text of, li. 

Declaration of Rights, by the Stamp Act 
Congress, 143-144; by the first Con- 
tinental Congress, 153. 

Declaratory Act, 145. 

Decrees, French, 241-242. 

Deerfield, Mass., Indian massacre at, 123. 

De Kalb, Baron Johann, joins the Amer- 
ican army, 171; at battle of Camden, 
187-188. 

Delaware, settlement of, 85-86; joined 
with Pennsylvania, 86, 95. 

Delaware, Lord, royal governor, 30. 

De Leon, Ponce, Spanish explorer, dis- 
covers Florida, 14. 

Democrats, Jeffersonian, 223. 

Democratic Party, origin of, 269-270; 
splits on the question of popular sov- 
ereignty, 330; in Civil War, 366-367, 
368-369; and silver question, 414-415. 

Depth bombs, 480. 

Deputies, and the General Court, 60-61. 

De Soto, Ferdinand, Spanish explorer, 
discovers the Mississippi, 15-16. 

Detroit, founded, 121; surrendered by 
Hull, 248, 

"Deutschland," makes tv.'o trips, 475. 

Dewey, Admiral George, portrait, 451; 
v.'ins battle of Manila Bay, 451; created 
admiral. 451. 

Dias Bartholoraeu, Portuguese explorer, 
discovers sea route to India, 5. 

Dickinson, John, in the Stamp Act Con- 
gress, 143; at the Annapolis meeting, 206; 
in the Constitutional Convention, 207. 

Dingley Tariff Bill, 415. 

Dinwiddle, Governor Robert, sends George 
Washington to the Ohio, 125. 

Directory, French, 231. 

Direct Primary Election, 470. 

Disarmament Conference, 493-494 

District of Columbia, established, 235; 
slavery abolished in, 318; liquor thrown 
out, 474. 

Districts, Federal Reserve, 469. 

Donelson, Fort, taken by Grant, 349-350. 

Dongan, Thomas, royal governor, 84. 

Dorchester Heights, fortification of, 161. 

Dorr's Rebellion, 270. 

Douglas, Stephen Arnold, portrait, 329; 



and the Compromise of 1850, 315; 
author of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 
321; and "popular sovereignty," 321, 
327, 330; opposes the Lecompton Con- 
stitution, 324; his debates with Lincoln, 
327-329 , candidate for the Presidency, 
330, 332; supports the Union, 332, 338, 

Dow, Neal, candidate for Presidency, 404. 

Draft Law, Selective, 479. 

Draft Riots, 368. 

Drake, Sir Francis, English explorer. 
portrait, 19; his explorations, 18. 

Dred Scott Decision, 326-327. 

Duke's Laws, 83-84. 

Duquesne, Fort (Pittsburgh), 125, 127- 
128, 130-131. 

Durham, N. C, Johnston's surrender at, 377. 

Dutch, in Connecticut, 70-71; found New 
Netherland, 77-S3; conquered by the 
English, 83; in Delaware, 85-86. 

Duties, in the colonies, 137, 139; imposed 
by Parliament, 145-146, 148; after the 
Revolution, 201, 241. See also Tarif. 

EARLY General Jubal A. (C), his raids 
in the Shenandoah Valley, 371; at 
Cedar Creek, 371-372. 

Earth, ancient theories about, 6, 7; Colum- 
bus' ideas of, 6-7; proved a sphere, 15. 

East India Company, Dutch, 77. 

Eaton, Theophilus, founds New Haven, 72. 

Education, in colonies, a, 40-41, 49, 63-64, 
83, 94. 107, 108; in Northwest Territory, 
204-205; in 1700, 218-219; growth of, 
before i860, 284-285; in the New South, 
431-432; in the North, 444-446; in new 
colonies, 455-456, 457; vocational, 473. 

Edward, Fort, 173. 

El Caney, battle of, 452. 

Elections, Presidential, of 1789, 221; of 
1792, 230; of 1796, 230; of 1800, 233- 
235; of 1804, 238 ; of 1808, 244; of 1812, 
1816, and 1820, 256; of 1824, 269; of 1828, 
272-273; of 1832, 274; of 1836, 276; of 
1840, 277-278; of 1844, 304, 305-306; of 
1848, 311-312; of 1852, 320-321 ;o 1 1856, 
325; of i860, 331-332; of 1864, 368-369; 
of 1868, 391; of 18-2, 397; of 1876, 400- 
402; of 1880, 403-404; of 1884, 406-407; 
of 1888, 408-409; of 1892, 411; of 1896, 
414; of 1900, 458; of 1904, 464; of 1908, 
466; of 1912,468-469; of 1916, 473-474, 
of 1920, 489. 

Electoral Commission, 401-402. 

Electors, Presidential, 209-210, 221, 235. 

Electricity, 435. 

Elizabeth, Queen, portrait, 18; encourages 
exploration, 19. 

Emancipation, proclamation of, 358-359; 
Northern opposition to, 367. 

Embargo Act, 244. 

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 265. 

Emigrant Aid Society, 322. 

Endicott, John, portrait, 66; founds 
Salem, 58; - nd the Quakers, 65-66. 

England, explorers and settlements of, 13, 
14, 17-20; and the struggle for Amer- 
ica, 121-135; institutions and colonial 
policy of, 133, 136-137; ar.d American 
commerce, 241, 244; in the War of 
1812, 246-255; and the Civil War, 344, 



XCIV 



The Index 



345; and the Venezuelan dispute, 414; 
in European War, 472- 

English, William H., candidate for the 
Vice-Presidency, 404. 

Episcopalians, in the colonies, 41, 45, 59, 67. 

"Era of Good Feeling," 268-269. 

Ericson, Leif, Norse explorer, 2. 

Ericsson, John, inventor of the " Monitor," 
348. 

Erie, Lake, battle of, 251-252. 

Erie Canal, 262-263. 

Estaing, Count d', in the assault on Sav- 
annah, 186. 

European War, 471-473, 475-489; America 
enters, 475; raising money for, 476-477; 
building ships for, 477; cost of, 477, 489; 
preparing army for, 478-479; rushing 
troops to Europe for, 480; decisive events 
of, 481; religious meaning of, 485. 

Eutaw Springs, battle of, 192. 

Excess profits, tax on, 477. 

Excise Law, 224, 225-226. 

Expansion, territorial, of the United States, 
2J7, 258-259, 306, 311, 39S. 454. 446- 
456. 460-462, 474-475. 

Explorations, early period of, 1-25; of the 
West, I18-121, 238-240. 

Exports, from the colonies, 114-116, 136- 
137; from the United States, 2 15-.' 16, 
220, 421, 435; of cotton during the 
Civil War, 345-346; in European War, 
472. 

Expositions, 432-434, 442-444, 462, 463, 
464, 467. 

Express System, establishment of, 416. 

FACTORIES, 216, 289. 

Fair Oaks, battle of, 3S4-3SS- 

Faneuil Hall, 149. 

Farmers' Alliance, 410-41 1. 

"Farmer's Letters," written by John Dick- 
inson, 153. 

Farming, see Agriiulttire. 

Farragut, Admiral David G., portrait, 373, 
takes New Orleans, 352-353; enters 
Molnle Bay, 373- 

"Father of the Constitution," 207. 

Federal Hall, 222. 

Federal Reserve Banks, 469, 471. 

Federal Union, see Union. 

"Federalist, The," 212. 

Federalist Party, rise of. 225; pass Alien 
and Sedition Laws, 232; defeat of, 233- 
234; oppose the Louisiana Purchase, 
238; and the Hartford ("onvention, 256. 

Ferguson, Major Patrick (E.). at battle of 
King's Mountain, 188-190. 

Field, Cyrus W., portrait, 293; lays the 
Atlantic cable, 293-294. 

Fifteenth Amendment, 393. 

"Fifty-four Forty or Fight," 305, 306. 

Filipino, 457. 

Fillmore, Millard, portrait, 317; succeeds 
to the Presidency, 318; in campaign of 
1H56. 325. 

Financial Panics, see Panics. 

Financial Stability, 472. 

Fitch, John, inventor, 216. 

Five Forks, battle of, 377. 

Five Nations, 24, 25, 78, 114, 117-118, 
122, 126, 180-181. 



Flags, 158, 174. 184. 303, 333. 334. 340, 

349. 
Flamborough Head, scene of Paul Jones's 

great victory, 185. 

Fletcher, royal governor, 116. 

Florida, discovered by Ponce de Leon, 14; 
expedition of Narvaez to, 15; settled 
by the Spanish, 16; Huguenot colony 
in, 17; ceded to Spain, 196; purchased 
by the United States, 258-259; ad- 
mission of, 283; secedes, 333. 

"Florida," Confederate cruiser, 373 

Foch, General, commander of forces ' I 
Allied. 481; receives German envoys. 487. 

Food Control, 482. 

Foote, Commodore Andrew H. (I/.), at 
Forts Henry and Donelson, 349-350; 
captures Island No. lo and Memphis, 
352. 

Forbes, General (£.), takes Fort Du- 
quesne, 131. 

Force Bills, 299, 393-394- 

Foreign Relations, during Washington's 
and Adams' administrations, 227-232; 
during the Civil War, 345, 346; after 
the war, 394-396; under Cleveland, 
413-414; under Wilson. 472,474, 475. 

Forts, see under names of forts. 

"Forty-niners," 313-314. 

Fourteenth Amendment, 389. 

Fox, George, founder of Quaker faith, 89. 

France, government and institutions of, 
13, 14, 133; explorations and settle- 
ments, 16-17, 77-78, 117-121, 125; and 
the struggle for North America, 121- 
135; cedes region west of the Mississippi, 
133; in the American Revolution, 176- 
177; and the treaty of peace with Eng- 
land, 195-196; loans from, 200; revo- 
lution in, 228, 231; sells Louisiana, 
237-238; and the Civil War, 344; in 
Mexico, 394; in European War, 472. 

Franklin, Benjamin, portrait, 176; and 
the Albany Plan of Union, 126-127; in 
England, 154; and the Declaration of 
Independence, 164; his work in France, 
176-177; and the "Bon Homme 
Richard," 185, note i; and the treaty of 
peace, 195-196; in the Constitutional 
('onvention, 207. 

Franklin, battle of, 375-376. 

Frederica, Ga., founded, 51. 

Frederick the Great, 129, 131, 179. 

Fredericksburg, battle of, 359. 

Freedman's Bureau, 389. 

Freedom of Speech, no, 232. 

Free Silver, see .Silver and Bimetallism. 

Free Soil Party, 311-312, 321, 325. 

Free Trade, see Tariff. 

Fremont, John C, explores the West, 309; 
first Republican candidate for the Pres- 
idency, 325; guards the Shenandoah 
region, 354; defeated by Stonewall 
Jackson, 355; in the Presidential cam- 
paign of 1864, 368. 

French and Indian War, 124-135. 

Friends, see Quakers. 

Frobisher, Sir Martin, English explorer, 18. 

Frontenac, Comte Louis, governor of 
Canada, 119. 

Fuel Control, 483. 



The Index 



xcv 



Fugitive Slave Law, 315, 317, 318. 
Fulton, Robert, portrait, 240; perfects the 

steamboat, 240. 
Funding Bill, 223. 

Funston, Major-General, death of, 474. 
Fur Trade, in the colonies, 39, 43, 70, 77, 

78, 96, 114, 119, 125. 

GADSDEN, Christopher, in the Stamp Act 

Congress. 143, 144; and' the tea tax, 132. 
Gadsden Purchase, 311. 
"Gag Law," 302. 
Gage, General Thomas (£.), at Boston, 

152, 155. 158; sends troops to Lexmgton, 

15s; at Bunker Hill, 158-159. 
Gaines, Fort, 373. 
Gallatin, Albert, Secretary of the Treasury, 

reduces the national debt, 237, 241. 
Garfield, James A., portrait, 404; elected 

President, 404; assassinated, 404-405. 
Garfield, Harry A., controller of the coal 

industry, 483. 
Garrison, William Lloyd, portrait, 300; 

establishes the Liberator; his letter to 

Mrs. Stowe, 320. 
Gas, 435-436. 

Gates, General Horatio (.4.), succeeds Gen- 
eral Schuyler, 175; at battle of Saratoga, 

175; defeated at Camden, 187-188. 
General Court, of Massachusetts, 58, 60- 

61, 62, 64, 67; of New Haven, 73. 
Genet, "Citizen," French emissary, 228. 
Geneva Tribunal, 395-396. 
Genoa, trade routes, 3; conference, 495. 
George H-, 51. 
George HI., portrait, 138; his attitude 

toward the colonies, 138, 139, 145, 146, 

148, 154, 162-163, 195. 
Georgia, founding of, 49-52; charter of, 

51; becomes a royal province, 52; in 

the Revolution, 186; slavery in, 209; 

and the Seminoles, 259; secedes, 333. 
Germans, immigration of, 48, 52, 281; 

loyalty to the Union, 349, 475- 
Germantown, battle of, 1 71-172. 
Gerry, Elbridge, and the Constitution, 

207, 212; commissioner to France, 231. 
Gettysburg, battle of, 360-362. 
Ghent, treaty of, 255. 
Gila River, disputed boundary, 311. 
Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, English explorer, 19. 
Gillmore, General Q. A. ({/.), takes Fort 

Sumter, 376. 
Goethals, Colonel George W., portrait, 460. 

Chief Engineer of the Panama Canal. 
Goffe, William, regicide, 73. 
Gold, discoveries of, 315, 41S. 417-418. 
Geld Currency, see Currency. 
Golden Hill, battle of, 147. 
Goldsboro, N. C, taken by Sherman, 376. 
"Good Roads" Act, 473. 
Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, settles Maine, 69- 

70. 
Government, United States, see Confedera- 
tion, Articles of; Constitution; Congress, 

United States, etc. 
Governors, Congress of, 466. 
Granada, fall of, 9. 
"Grand Model," constitution 46. 
Grant, Ulysses S. (i/.), portrait, 369; in 

war with Mexico, 309; captures Forts 



Henry and Donelson, 349-350; at battle 
of Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing), 351; at 
battle of luka, 353; in campaign around 
Vicksburg, 362-364; takes command at 
Chattanooga, 365; becomes Lieutenant- 
Ceneral, 369-370; in Wilderness cam- 
paign, 370; receives surrender of Lee, 377; 
elected President, 391; sends troops to 
south, 394; reelected, 307- 

Grants, Royal, 42, 46, 70, 86, 91. 

Great Britain, see England. 

Great Law of Pennsylvania, 93- 

Greeley, Horace, editor of the Tribune, 
369; candidate for the Presidency, 396- 
397; death of, 397- 

Greenback Party, 400, 410. 

Greene, General Nathanael (.4.), portrait, 
190; at Bunker Hill, 159; his cam- 
paign in the South, 190-192. 

Greenland, settled by Northmen, 2. 

Greenville, treaty of, 226. 

Guadalupe Hidalgo, treaty of, 311. 

Guam, island of, 454. 

Guilford Court House, battle of, 191. 

Gustavus Adolphus, 85. 

HALE, John P., candidate for the Presi- 
dency, 321. 

Hale, Nathan, 167. 

" Half Moon," Henry Hudson's ship, 77. 

Halleck, General Henry W. {U.), com- 
mander in the West, 349; commander 
of the Union armies, 356. 

Hamilton, Alexander, portrait, 203; on 
the army and Congress, 201; works for 
a stronger government, 203; at the 
Annapolis meeting, 206; in the Consti- 
tutional Convention, 207; Secretary of 
the Treasury, 222; establishes the 
national credit, 223-224; defends Jay's 
treaty, 229-230; shot by Burr, 238. 

Hamilton, Andrew, Quaker lawyer, de- 
fends free speech, no. 

Hamilton, General (£.), and the George 
Rogers Clark expedition, 182. 

Hamlin, Hannibal, Vice-President under 
Lincoln, 331. 

Hampton Roads, battle of "Merrimac" 
and "Monitor" in, 347. 

Hancock, John, threatened with arrest, 
152, 155; president of Continental Con- 
gress, 159; and the Constitution, 207, 212. 

Hancock, General Winfield Scott {U.), at 
battle of Gettysburg, 360,361; candi- 
date for the Presidency, 404. 

Harding, Warren G., portrait, 489; elected 
President, 489; calls Disarmament Con- 
ference, 493. 

Harper's Ferry, John Brown at, 329. 

Harrison, Benjamin, in the second Conti- 
nental Congress, 159; Washington's 
letter to, 202. 

Harrison, Benjamin, portrait, 409; elected 
President, 409; defeated by Cleveland, 
411. 

Harrison, Fort, 247. 

Harrison, William Henry, portrait, 278; 
at Tippecanoe, 247-24S; defeats Cana- 
dians and Indians, 251, 252; elected 
President, 277-278; death of, 270. 

Hartford, Conn., settled, 71. 



XCVl 



riie Index 



Hartford Convention, 256. 

Harvard College, 6j, 09. 108. 

Harvey, John, royal governor, 36. 

Hatteras Inlet, capture of, 352-^^ 

Havana, destruction of "Maine" at, 449. 

Haverhill, Mass., Indian massacre at, 123. 

Hawaii, revolution in, 413; annexation 
of. 454- 

Hawthorna, Nathaniel, 265. 

Hay, John, portrait, 462. 

Hayes, Rutherford B., portrait, 402; can- 
didate for the Presidency, 400-401; 
chosen by the Electoral Commission, 
401-402; removes troops from the 
South, 402; vetoes Bland Silver Bill, 403. 

Hayne, Robert Y., debates with Webster, 
297-298; threatens secession, 299. 

Hebrew Welfare Association, 484. 

Heights of Abraham, 132. 

Hendricks, Thomas A., Vice-President 
under t'lcveland, 406. 

Hennepin, Father, French missionary, 120. 

Henrietta Maria, Queen, portrait, 43; 
Maryland named for, 42. 

Henry, Fort, taken by Grant, 349- 

Henry, Patrick, portrait, 152; his speech 
in the House of Burgesses, 143; in the 
first Continental Congress, 153; aids 
George Rogers Clark, 181; his attitude 
toward the Constitution, 207, 212. 

Henry, Prince, of Portugal, portrait, 4; 
his school of navigation. 4-5. 

Herkimer, General Nicholas (.4.), am- 
bushed near Fort Stanwix, 174. 

Hessians, 162-163, 168-169, 173-174- 

"Higher Law," Seward's, 317. 

Historians, American, 264, 266. 

Hobkirk's Hill, battle of. 191. 

Hobson, Richmond P., sinks the "Merri- 
mac" at Santiago, 451-452. 

Holland, institutions of, 14; the Pilgrims in, 
54; plants colonies in America, 77-83; 
makes war on England, I77; loans 
money to the United States, 177. 200. 

Holland, J. P., inveator of submarine, 475. 

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 266. 

" Holy Alliance," 267. 

Homestead, Pa., strike at, 441. 

Homestead Law, 417. 

Hood, General John B. (C), succeeds 
Johnston, 372: defeated at Atlanta, 
372; moves against Thomas, 374; ^t 
battle of Franklin, 375-376; at Nash- 
ville, 376. 

Hooker, General Joseph (£/.), at battle of 
Chancellorsvillc, 359; at battle of Look- 
out Mountain, 365-366. 

Hooker, Thomas, advocates government 
by the people, 61, 72; leads colony to 
Connecticut, 61, 71. 

House of Burgesses, seeBurgcjies, House of. 

House of Commons, see Commons, House >,{. 

House of Representatives, see Representa- 
tives, House of. 

"House Divided against Itself" speech, 
Lincoln's, 327. 

Houston, Sam, portrait, 303; leads the 
revolution in Texas, 303-304. 

Howe, Elias, inventor, 290. 

Howe, General George (E.). leads expe- 
dition against Ticonderoga, 130. 



Howe, Richard, Earl (£.), commands 
British fleet in the Revolution, 166. 

Howe, General William (C), portrait, 161; 
evacuates Boston, 161; at battle of Long 
Island, 167; occupies Philadelphia, 171- 
172; fails to support Burgoyne, 172, 175; 
succeeded by Clinton, 17Q. 

Hudson, Henry, discovers the Hudson 
River. 77- 

Hudson River, discovery of, 77. 

Huerta, succeeds Madero, 471; flees, 471. 

HugheSj Justice, nominated for President, 
473- 

Huguenots, found colony in Florida, 17; 
in the Carolinas, 48; in New Nether- 
land. 81. 

Hull, Captain Isaac, defeats the "Guerri- 
ere," 24H-24<). 

Hull, General William, surrenders Detroit, 
249- 

Hutchinson, Mrs. Anne, banished from 
Massachusetts, 62; settles Portsmouth, 
R. I., 75-76. 



ICELAND, settled by the Northmen, 2. 

Idaho, territory organized, 418; admitted, 
418; woman suffrage in, 470. 

Illinois, admitted, 258; woman suffrage in, 
470. 

Immigration, 47, 92, 95, 97-98. 280-281. 

Impeachment, of President Johnson, 390. 

Imperialism, 454, 458. 

Impressment of American Seamen, 229, 
231, 241, 242, 243, 246. 

Income Tax, 384, 411, 413, 469. 473; 
changed, 477. 

"Indented Servants," 31, 98. 

Independence, growth of idea in the colo- 
nies, 144, 162-163; Declaration of, 
163-165. 

Independence Hall, 207. 

"Independent" Republicans, 406. 

Independent Treasury, see Treasury, United 
.Slates. 

India, search for routes to, 2-1 1. 

Indiana, territory of, 245, 247; admitted, 
258. 

Indians, why so named, 2 1 ; and the set- 
tlement of America, 21-22; characteris- 
tics and government, 22-25; treaties 
with, 56, 77-78, 93-94. 126; and the 
French, 117-118, 122-123. 124-135; 
battles with, 66-67, 7i. I34. 247-248, 
254. 424-426; policy of the government 
toward, 424-425. See also under names 
of tribes. 

Indian Territory, 425, 426, 465. 

Indigo, 49, 52. lis. 

Industries, in the colonies, 31, 43, 48-49, 
52, 57, 113-116; development of, see 
Manufaituring., Agriculture, etc. 

Initiative and Referendum, 470. 

Internal Commerce, see Commerce. 

Internal Improvements, origin of demand 
for, 260; favored by the Whigs, 270, 
274. See also Canals. Railroads, etc. 

Internal Revenue, 384-385. See also 
Taxaliim. 

Interstate Commerce Commission, 407. 

Intolerable Acts of 1774, I5i-i5-'. 



TJie Index 



xcvii 



Inventions, 220, 240, 264, 285-290, 292, 

434-438. 
Iowa, admitted, 283. 
Irish, immigration of, 281. 
Iron, 288-289, 428. 
Ironclads, 348. 

Iroquois Indians, see Five Nations. 
Irrigation, 427. 
Irving, Washington, portrait, 264; his 

writings, 264-265. 
Isabella, Queen, aids Columbus, 9. 
Island No. 10, capture of, 352. 
Isthmian Canal, see Panama Canal. 
luka, battle of, 353. 

JACKSON, Andrew, portrait, 271; takes 
Pensacola, 254; at battle of Horseshoe 
Bend, 254; at battle of New Orleans, 
254-255; invades Florida, 259; candi- 
date for the Presidency, 269-272; elected 
President, 272-273; introduces the 
"Spoils System," 273-274; destroys 
the United States Bank, 274-275; and 
nullification, 298, 299. 

Jackson, battle of, 363. 

Jackson, Fort, 352. 

Jackson, General Thomas J. ("Stonewall ") 
(C.), portrait, 342; in the war with 
Mexico, 309; at the first battle of Bull 
Run, 343; his raid, 355; at battle of 
Chancellorsville, 3S9-360. 

James I., 35, 55, 57- 

James II., 45, 67, 68, 83, 84, 85, 122. 

Jamestown, settlement of, 26-31; devel- 
opment of, 31-35; under royal govern- 
ment, 35-41 ; burning of, 40. 

Jamestown Exposition, 465. 

Japan, opened to commerce, 292. 

Jay, John, portrait, 223; appointed peace 
commissioner, 195-196; appointed Chief 
Justice, 223; makes treaty with England, 
229-230. 

Jay Cooke & Co., failure of, 398. 

Jefferson, Thomas, portrait, 237; frames 
Declaration of Independence, 164; 
frames plan of government for the 
Northwest Territory, 204; minister to 
France, 207; Secretary of State, 222; 
and the Democratic-Republicans, 225; 
elected Vice-President, 231; writes the 
Kentucky Resolutions, 233; elected 
President, 233-235; ideas of, 236; 
makes the Louisiana Purchase, 237- 
238; peace policy of, 236, 241, 242, 243. 

"Jerry Rescue," 319. 

Jerseys, see New Jersey. 

Joffre, General, France sends, 476. 

Johnson, Andrew, portrait, 387; chosen 
Vice-President, 368; his plan of recon- 
struction, 387-388; Congress opposes, 
388, 389; impeachment of, 390. 

Johnson, Sir John (£.), aids St. Leger, 174. 

Johnson, Sir William, leads expedition 
against Crown Point, 127; captures 
Niagara, 131. 

Johnston, General Albert Sidney (C), 
killed at battle of Shiloh (Pittsburg 
Landing), 351. 

Johnston, General Joseph E. (C), portrait, 
376; collects Confederate army, 342; 
at battle of Fair Oaks, 354-355; in the 



campaign around Vicksburg, 363; 

succeeds Bragg, 366; succeeded liv 

Hood, 372; restored to command, 37(1; 

at Bentonville, 376; surrender of, 377. 
Joliet, Louis, French explorer, 119. 
Jones, John Paul, portrait, 185; his great 

sea fight, 185. 
Judges, see Courts. 
Jury, trial by, 133, 140, 144, 325. 

KAISER, abdicates throne, 481. 

Kansas, organized as a territory, 321; 

struggle in, 322-325. 
Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 321. 
Kaskaskia, founded, 121. 
Kearny, Colonel Stephen, conquers New 

Mexico, 309. 
"Kearsarge," Union man-of-war, sinks 

the "Alabama," 374. 
Kennesaw Mountain, battle of, 372. 
Kent Island, Claiborne's post on, 43, 45. 
Kentucky, settlement of, 181; under Vir- 
ginia rule, 204; becomes a state, 257; 

the Civil War, in, 349, 350, 353- 
Kentucky Resolutions, 232-233. 
Key, Francis Scott, composes the "Star 

Spangled Banner," 254, note i. 
Kidd, Captain William, pirate, 116 
Kieft, Dutch governor, 80. 
King George's War, 124. 
King Philip's War, 66-67. 
King William's War, 122-124. 
King's College (Columbia University), 

founded, 108. 
King's Mountain, battle of, 188-1 
Knights of Columbus, 484. 
Knights of Labor, 439-440, 441. 
"Knownothing " Party, 325-326. 
Knox, General Henry {A.), carries cannon 

to Boston, 161; Secretary of War, 222. 
Knoxville, battle of, 366. 
Kosciusko, Thaddeus, Polish patriot in 

the American army, 171, 175. 
Kuklux Klan, 393. 

LABOR, Kmghts of, 439-440. 

Labor Party, 397. 

Labor Unions, 439-440. 

Laborers, foreign, legislation against, 407. 

Ladrones, discovered by Magellan, 15; 
United States possessions in, 454. 

Lafayette, Jean Paul, portrait, 170; joins 
the American army, 171; at battle of 
Monmouth, 179; in the South, 192; 
revisits the United States, 267. 

Lake Champlain, battle of, 253. 

Lake Erie, battle of, 251-252. 

Lake of the Woods, 196. 

Land System, see Public Lands. 

La Salle, French explorer, names Louisi- 
ana, 120-121. 

"Law of Nations," 14. 

"Lawrence," Perry's flagship, 251. 

Lawrence, Captain James, defeated by 
the "Shannon," 250. 

Lawrence, Kan., settled, 322; attack on, 323. 

Lecompton Constitution, 324. 

Lee, General Charles (-1.), captured by 
the British, 167; treachery of, 179. 

Lee, Fort, 166, 167. 



XCVlll 



'IJie Index 



Lee, Henry ("Licht Horse Harry") (.1.), 
captures Paulus Hook. 183; with 
fireene in the South, iqo, ioi. 

Lee, Richard Henry, in the first Conti- 
nental Congross, 153; introduces rcsii- 
lution for independence, 163; and the 
Constitution. 207, 212. 

Lee, General Robert E. (C.), portrait, 355; 
in the war with Mexico. 309; captures 
John Brown, 329; in command of Con- 
federate army, 355; in the "Seven 
Days' Battle." 355-356; at second bat- 
tle of Bull Run. 357; at battle of Antie- 
tam. 357; at battle of Gettysburg. 360- 
362; in the Wilderness campaign, 370; 
surrender of, 377. 

Leiden, Pilgrims at, 54. 

Leisler, Jacob, rule of, 83-84. 

"Leopard," British frigate, and the 
"Chesapeake." 243. 

Letters of Marque and Reprisal, 184. 

Lewis and Clark Expedition, 23S-239; one- 
hundredth anniversary, 464. 

Lexington, battle of, 155-156. 

Liberal Republican Party, 396. 

"Liberator," Garrison's anti-slavery paper, 
300. 

Liberties, see Body of Liberties and Charter 
of Liberties. 

Liberty, Sons of, 141-142, 146; Daughters 
of, 143. 

"Liberty Bell," 164, 165, 194. 

"Liberty Loan," 47". 

Liberty Motor, 480. 

Liberty Party, 302, 304, 312. 

Libraries, 49, 109. 

Lincoln, Abraham, portrait, 332; candi- 
date for United States Senatorship. 327; 
his debates with Douglas. 327-329; his 
attitude toward slavery, 327, 336, 357- 
358; nominated for the Presidency, 
330-331; elected President, 332; his 
inauguration, 336; his cabinet, 337; is- 
sues call to arms. 338; orders blockade 
of Southern ports. 345; calls for more 
troops, 356; and McClellan. 357; issues 
Emancipation Proclamation. 358-359; 
opposition to, 367-368; reelected. 369; 
assassination of. 378; his ideas of recon- 
struction, 386-387. 

Lincoln, General Benjamin (.4.), in Can- 
ada, 175; defeated at Savannah, 17s; 
at Charleston, 186; receives the British 
sword, 194; quells Shays's Rebellion, 
202. 

Line of Demarcation, fixed by Pope Alex- 
ander. VL. 12. 

Literature, American, 264-266, 446. 

" Little Belt," English frigate, defeated by 
the "President," 245. 

Little Round Top, assault on, 360-361. 

Livingston, Philip, in the Stamp Act Con- 
gress, 143. 

Livingston, Robert R., in the Stamp Act 
Congress, 143; and the Declaration of 
Independence, 164. 

Locke, John, author of the "Grand Mod- 
el." 46. 

Logan, General John A., candidate for the 
Vice-Presidency, 406. 

London Company, charters of, 25, 30, 31, 



35; settles Jamestown, 26-31; last 

days of. 35. 
Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 265. 
Long Island, battle of. lOo 107. 
Longstreet, General James (C). in the war 

with Mcxirn, 300; at battle of Chicka- 

niauK.i, 365; at battle of Knoxvillc, 366. 
Lookout Mountain, battle of, 365-366. 
Loose Construction, 225. 
London, General John C. (£.), 129. 
Louisburg, capture and restoration of, 

124; recaptured by the English. 130. 
Louisiana, naming of, 121; purchase of, 

237-238; admission of, 258; secedes, 

33.?. 
Lovejoy, Elijah, anti-slavery martyr, 300. 
Lowell, James Russell, 285. 
Loyalists, see Tories. 
Lumbering Industry, 421-422. 
Lundy, Benjamin, anti-slavery leader, 

300. 
Lundy's Lane, battle of. 253. 
Lyon, General Nathaniel {U.), killed at 

Wilson's Creek, 349. 



MADERO, 471. 

Madison, James, portrait, 256; favors a 
stronger government, 203; at the An- 
napolis meeting. 206; in the Constitu- 
tional Convention. 207, 209; author of 
the Virginia Resolutions, 233; peace 
policy of. 242, 244, 246; elected Presi- 
dent, 244; agrees to war, 246; and 
"strict construction," 256; favors the 
United States Bank, 257. 

Magellan, Ferdinand, portrait, 15; bis 
voyage around the world, 15. 

Maine, settlement of, 69-70; annexed by 
Massachusetts, 70; admitted as a state, 
260. 

" Maine," United States warship, de- 
stroyed in Havana Harbor, 449. 

Malvern Hill, battle of, 355. 

Manassas Junction (Bull Run), first battle 
of. 342-343; second battle of, 357. 

Manhattan Island, settlement and pur- 
chase of. 77, 78. 

Manila, battle of. 451; capture of. 453. 

Mann, Horace, portrait, 444; educational 
leader. 444. 

Manufacturing, in the colonies. 31, 113- 
114. 137; development of in the United 
States, 216, 289-290, 420-422, 429, 436- 
437. 

Marco Polo, Italian traveler. 3. 

Marion, Francis (.1 .) , revolutionary leader, 

186-187, IQI. 

Marque and Reprisal, letters of, 184, 251. 
Marquette, Jacques, French missionary, 

portrait, 119; explores the Mississippi, 

119. 

Marshall, John, portrait, 234; commis- 
sioner to France, 231; appointed Chief 
Justice, 235. 

Maryland, founding of, 41-45; troubles in, 
43-45; becomes a royal province, 4S; 
restored to the Baltimores. 45. 

Mason, George, and the Constitution, 31 3. 

Mason, James M., Confederate commis- 
sioner, 346. 



The Index 



xcix 



Mason, Captain John, settles New Hamp- 
shire, 69-70. 

Mason and Dixon's Line, 94-95. 

Massachusetts, settlement of, 52-57; char- 
ter of, 58, 62, 64, 67, 69, 151; General 
Court of, 58, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 67; 
establishes written laws, 63; and the 
New England Confederation, 65; as a 
royal province, 67-69; annexes Maine 
and New Hampshire, 70; in the Revo- 
lution. 139. 142. 146, 149-150, isi, 155- 

159, 161; emancipates slaves, 220; 
first railroad in, 263. 

Massachusetts Bay Company, 57-58, 62. 

Massachusetts Circular Letter, 146. 

Massasoit, Indian Chief, 55, 66, 75. 

Maximilian, made emperor of Mexico, 394- 

"Mayflower," Pilgrims' ship, 55. 

Mayflower Compact, signed, 55; text of, li. 

McClellan, General George B. ( t/.) , portrait , 
343; protects Western Virginia, 342; 
commands Army of the Potomac, 343- 
344; undertakes the Peninsular cam- 
paign, 354-356; superseded, 356. 357; 
and the political parties, 367; candidate 
for the Presidency, 368-369. 

McComb, General (.4.), 253. 

McCormick, Cyrus Hall, inventor, 287. 

McDonough, Commodore Thomas {A.), 
wins battle of Lake Champlain, 253. 

McDowell, General Irvin (i/.), in com- 
mand at Washington, 342; at first bat- 
tle of Bull Run, 342-343; and the Pen- 
insular campaign, 354, 355. 

McHenry, Fort, 254. 

McKinley, William, portrait, 447; author 
of the McKinley Bill, 409; elected 
President, 414-415; reelected, 458- 
459; assassination of. 459- 

Meade, General George G. (t/.), portrait, 
360; at battle of Gettysburg, 360-362; 
commands Army of the Potomac, 370. 

Mecklenburg County, N. C, patriotism in, 
147, 188. 

Medical Service, work of, during European 
War, 485. 

Memphis, surrender of, 352. 

Menendez, Pedro, Spanish explorer, de- 
stroys Huguenot colony in Florida, 17. 

"Merrimac" and "Monitor," battle of, 
347-348- 

Merritt, General, takes Manila, 453. 

Methods, New Political, 470. 

Mexico, conquest of, is; abolishes slavery, 
303; loses Texas, 303-304; war with, 
306-310; treaty with, 310-31 1; the 
French in, 394; relations with United 
States, 471, 474. 

Michigan, admission of, 282. 

Milan Decree, 242. 

Miles, General Nelson A., in Porto Rico, 453. 

Mills, development of. 420-422. 

Mills, R. Q., author of the Mills Bill, 408. 

Mill Spring, battle of, 349. 

Mining Industry, 288-289, 424. 428. 

Minnesota, admission of, 283. 

Minuit, Peter, Dutch governor, 78. 

Minutemen, 155, 156, 157. 

Missionary Ridge, battle of, 365-366. 

Mississippi, admitted, 258; secedes, 333; 
ratifies prohibition amendment, 483. 



Mississippi River, discovery of, 16; ex- 
ploration of, 119-121; navigation of, 
217, 237, 238. 

Missouri, admitted, 259-260; and the 
struggle in Kansas, 322, 323; the Civil 
War in, 348-349. 

Missouri Compromise, 259-260, 326. 

Mobile Bay, battle of, 373. 

Modoc Indians, 424-425. 

Mohammedans, 2, 3, 241. 

Molino del Rey, battle of, 310. 

Money, see Currency. 

" Monitor " and " Merrimac," battle of, 
347-348. 

Monmouth, battle of, 179. 

Monroe, James, portrait, 267; and the 
Constitution, 212; and the treaty with 
England, 242; doctrine of, 267-268; 
as a peacemaker, 269-270. 

Monroe Doctrine, 267-268, 394, 395, 414, 
48S. 

Montana, territory organized, 418; gold 
in, 418; admitted, 418. 

Montcalm, General Louis Joseph de (F.), 
portrait, 130; at Ticonderoga, 130; at 
Quebec, 131-133. 

Monterey, battle of, 307-308. 

Montgomery, General Richard (.4.), at- 
tacks Quebec, 160-161. 

Montreal, named by Cartier, 16; expedi- 
tion against, 124; surrender of, 133. 

Moore's Creek, battle of, 162. 

Morgan, Daniel (.4.), portrait, 160; joins 
the Continental army, 160; at Quebec, 
160-161; at battle of the Cowpens, 190. 

Morgan, Fort, 373. 

Morgan, John Hunt (C), leader of "Mor- 
gan's Raid," 381. 

Mormons, 282. 

Morris, Gouverneur, portrait, 209; in the 
Constitutional Convention, 207. 

Morris, Robert, portrait, 169; aids Wash- 
ington, 169-170; in the Constitutional 
Convention, 207. 

Morristown, N. J., Washington's winter 
at, 170. 

Morse, Samuel F. B., portrait, 292; in- 
vents the telegraph, 292-293. 

Morton, Levi P., elected Vice-President, 
409. 

Moultrie, Fort, 162. 

Moultrie, General William (.4.), defends 
Charleston, 162. 

Mound Builders, 21. 

Mount Holyoke College, founded, 445. 

Mount Vernon, home of Washington, 197. 

" Mugwumps" (Independent Republicans), 
406. 

Murfreesboro (Stone River), battle of, 
353-354- 

NAPOLEON, sells Louisiana, 237; de- 
crees of, 241-242; and the embargo, 
244-245. 

Narvaez, Panfilo, Spanish explorer, leads 
expedition to Florida, 15. 

Nashville, evacuated by the Confederates, 
350; battle of, 376; exposition at, 433. 

National Banks, see JSanks. 

National Conventions, see Conventions. 

National Guard, on Mexican border, 474. 



The Index 



National Republican Party, rise of, 270; 
See also Whig I 'arty. 

National Road, 261. 

National Union Party, 368. 

Naturalization, 232. 

Navigation Laws, 38, 67, 116, 135. 137. 
130-140. 

Navy, American, 184-186, 247, 248-251, 
341. 345. 437. 450-451. 466. 477-478. 

Nebraska, organized as a territory, 321; 
admitted, 417; ratifies prohibition 
amendment, 483. See also the Kansas- 
Nebraska Bill. 

Necessity, Fort, 126. 

Neutrality, policy of, 228, 267-268, 471- 
472. 

" Neutral Ships Make Neutral Goods," 
246. 

Nevada, settlement of, 415; admitted, 417. 

New Albion, 18. 

New Amsterdam, founded, 78; govern- 
ment of, 81; becomes New York, 83. 

Newbern, capture of, 352. 

New England, named by John Smith, 53; 
colonies of, 52-76; schools in, 63-64; 
town government in, 57, 59, 64, 151; 
in the French wars, 122-124, 126-127. 

New England Confederation, 64-65. 

Newfoundland, visited by the French, 16; 
attempted settlement of, 41; taken by 
the EnRlish, 124. 

New France, 17, 117. 

New Hampshire, settlement of, 62, 70; an- 
nexed by Massachusetts, 70. 

New Haven, founding of. 72-73; and the 
New England Confederation, 65, 73; 
united with Connecticut Colony, 73; 
General Courts of, 73. 

New Jersey, settlement of, 86; under 
English rule, 86-87; secured by Penn, 
87-88; becomes a royal province, 88-89; 
slavery in, 220. 

" New Jersey Plan," 208. 

New Mexico, conquest of, 309, 311; or- 
ganized as a territory, 318; admitted, 468. 

New Netherland, settled by the Dutch, 
77-f*3; patroons in, 79; becomes New 
York, 83. 

New Orleans, founded, 121; ceded by 
France to Spain, 133; trade of the West 
with, 217; importance of, 237; secured 
by the Louisiana Purchase, 237; battle 
of, 254-255; revisited by Jackson, 271- 
272; captured by Farragut and Butler, 
352-353; e.xposition in, 432. 

New Political Methods, 470. 

Newport, Captam, brings settlers to James- 
town, 28. 

Newport, R. I., founded, 76. 

"New Roof" (the Constitution), 213. 

Newspapers, in the colonies, 109-110; in 
1790, 218; growth of, before i860, 285; 
in the recent period, 446. 

New Sweden (Delaware), 85-86. 

Newtown, see Cambridge. 

New York, settlement of, 77-^3 ; under 
English rule, 83-85; Germans in, 97; 
in the French wars, 122-124; slavery in, 
220; canals of, 262-263. 

New York City, in i<)43, 83; in 1750. .96; 
colonial conference at, 123; Washing- 



ton's campaign around, 166-167; the 
British in, 180, 193, 196; in 1790, 214; 
and the Erie (Tanal, 263; in i860, 280; 
draft riots in, 368. 

Nichols, royal governor. 83. 

Nominating Conventions, 274. 

Non-importation, 142, 146, 154, 243. 

Non-intercourse Act, 244. 

Norfolk, Va., capture of. 348. 

North, and the South, differences between, 
204; rising of, 338; strength of, 340- 
341, 383-384. 

North, Lord, portrait, 148; imposes tax 
on lea, 148; resigns, 193. 

North Carolina, early settlers of, 47; the 
"Regulators" in, 147; in the Revolu- 
tion, 161, 163, 188-190; sends settlers 
to Tennessee, 181; and the Constitu- 
tion, 212; secedes, 342. 

North Dakota, admitted, 418. 

Northern Pacific Railroad, 418. 

Northmen, in Iceland and Greenland, 1-2; 
discover America, 2. 

"North Virginia" (New England), 52. 

Northwest, exploration of, 238-239; the 
new, 415-427. 

Northwest Territory, 204. 

Nova Scotia (Acadia), settled, 17; taken 
by the English, 124. 

Nueces River, 306, 311. 

Nullification, in the Kentucky Resolutions, 
233, 207; defended by Hayne, 297; 
Jackson's attitude toward, 298; applied 
by South Carolina, 298-299. 

OGLETHORPE, James Edward, portrait, 

51; founds Georgia, 49-52. 
Ohio, and the ordinance of 1787, 204; 

emigration to, 215, 258; admitted, 258. 
Ohio Company, 125. 
Oil, discovery of. 435-436. 
Oklahoma, opening of, 426-427; admitted, 

465. 
Olney, Richard, Secretary of State under 

Cleveland, portrait, 412. 
"Old Dominion" (N'irginia), 100, 213. 
"Old Ironsides," 250. 
Old North Church, 155. 
"Old North State" (North Carolina), 188. 
Old South Meetmghouse, 147, 150. 
Omnibus Bill (Compromise of 1850), 315. 
Orange, Fort (Albany), 77, 78, 79. 
Orders in Council, 241-242, 244. 
Ordinances, of 1787, 204-205; nullification, 

208; secession, m. 
Oregon, England's claim to, 18, 239, 304; 

claims of United States to, 239, 304- 

305; admission of, 283; struggle for, 

304-306; growth of, 464. 
"Oregon," tjnited States battleship, 453. 
Oriskany, battle of, 174. 
Ostend Manifesto, 283, 448. 
Otis, James, portrait, 142; opposes the 

"Writs of Assistance," 139-140; ancl 

the Stamp Act, 142, 143. 

PACIFIC Ocean, discovery of. 15. 
Packing Industry, 423. 
Paine, Thomas, and the movement for 
independence, 163. 



The Index 



ci 



Pakenham, General Sir lidward M. (£.). 
at the battle of New Orleans, 254. 

Palma, president of Cuba, 460. 

Palo Alto, battle of, 307. 

Panama Canal, 460-462. 

Panics, financial, of 1837, 275-276; of 
1873, 398; of 1893, 411-412; tendency 
toward, 471. 

Paper Money, see Currency. 

Parker, Alton B., 464. 

Parliament, and the Stuart kings, 35-37, 
45, 58, 68; aids Oglethorpe, 51; grants 
charter to Rhode Island, 76; and 
George III., 138; taxes the colonies, 
140, 145; passes the Intolerable Acts, 
151; refuses conciliation, 154; conces- 
sions of, 177. 

Parties, political, 225. See names of. 

Paterson, William, in the Constitutional 
Convention, 207. 

Patterson, General (C/.), 342. 

Patroons, 79, loi, 279. 

Paixlus Hook, capture of, 183. 

Payne-Aldrich, tariff bill, 467. 

Peabody, George, portrait, 432; his gifts 
to Southern education, 432. 

Peace, movement for universal, 365, 366. 

Peace Convention, 335. 

Pea Ridge, battle of, 350-351. 

Peary, Robert E., 468. 

Pendleton Bill, 405. 

Peninsular Campaign, 354-356. 

Penn, Richard, carries petition to George 
III., 162. 

Penn, William, portrait, 90; secures Dela- 
ware, 86; secures West Jersey, 87-88; 
receives grant from Charles II., 91; set- 
tles Pennsylvania, 92-95; and the In- 
dians, 93-94; founds Philadelphia, 94. 

Penn Charter School, 107. 

Pennsylvania, grant of, 91; charter of, 91; 
settlement of, 92-95; Great Law of, 93; 
prosperity of, 95; Germans in, 97; 
slavery in, 220; discovery of coal and 
iron in, 28S-289; oil and gas in, 435-436. 

"Pennsylvania Packet," first daily paper 
in America, 110. 

Pensions, 409. 

People's Party, 410-41 1. 

Pequot Indians, 62, 66, 71. 

Percy, Henry, Earl, at Lexington, 156- 
157. 

Perry, Captain Oliver Hazard (.4.), his 
victory on Lake Erie, 251-252. 

Perry, Commodore Matthew C, op^ns 
Japan to commerce, 292; in the war 
with Mexico, 309. 

Perryyille, battle of, 353. 

Pershing, General, in Mexico, 474; por- 
trait, 478; sent to France, 478; in com- 
mand of American army in Europe, 48 1. 

Personal Liberty Laws, 325. 

Peru, conquest of, 16. 

Petersburg, siege of, 370. 

Petition, right of, in the Declaration of 
Rights, 144; defended by John Quincy 
Adams, 301-302. 

Petroleum, discovered in Pennsylvania, 
435- 

Philadelphia, Pa., founded, 93-94; in 
1750, 96; Continental Congress in, 152, 
159, 163-164; British in, 171-172; 



evacuation of, 179; in 1790, 214; capital 
of the United States, 224; in 1870, 417; 
Centennial Exposition at, 442. 

Philip, Kling, war of, 66-67. 

Philippine Islands, discovered by Magel- 
lan, 15; conquest of, 451, 453; trans- 
ferred to the United States, 454; educa- 
tion in, 455; insurrection in, 456-457; 
government of, 457, 460; home rule in, 
465. 

Phips, Sir William (E.), captures Port 
Royal, 123-124. 

Phonograph, invention of, 438. 

Pickens, Andrew (.4.), revolutionary leader, 
186-187. 

Pickett, General George Edward (C), at 
battle of Gettysburg, 361. 

Pierce, Franklin, portrait, 320; elected 
President, 320. 

Pike, Zebulon M., explorer, 239, 415. 

Pilgrims, in Holland, 54; found Plymouth, 
54-57; democracy of, 57. 

Pinckney, General Charles Cotesworth, 
minister to France, 231; and the treaty 
with England, 242. 

Piracy, 116. 

Pitcairn, Major John (£.), at the battle 
of Lexington, 156. 

Pitt, Fort, see Ditquesne, Fort. 

Pitt, William, Lord Chatham, portrait, 
129; defeats the French in America, 
129-133; opposes the Stamp Act, 144- 
145; upholds the colonies, 154, 177. 

Pittsburgh, naming of, 130-131; in 1790, 
215; center of the coal and iron trade, 
289; great strike in, 441. 

Pittsburg Landing (Shiloh), battle of, 
.350-351- 

Pizarro, Spanish explorer, conquers Peru, 
16. 

Planters, 31, 34, 48, 49, loo-ioi, 115, 294, 
382. 

Platforms, political, 274. 

Plymouth Colony, founded, 52-57; and 
the New England Confederation, 65; 
joined with Massachusetts, 69. 

Plymouth Company, 25, 52, 69. 

Pocahontas, 28. 

Poets, American, see Literature. 

Poison gas, 480. 

Polar Exploration, 468. 

Polk, James K., portrait, 306; candidate 
for the Presidency, 304; elected Presi- 
dent, 306; and Texas question, 306- 
307; and treaty with Mexico, 310-311. 

Polygamy, 359, 406. 

Ponce de Leon, Spanish explorer, 14. 

Pontiac's Conspiracy, 134. 

Pony Express, 415. 

"Poor Richard's Almanac," 185, note i. 

Pope, General John (t/.), at Island No. 
10, 352; at battle of Corinth, 352; 
commander of Army of Virginia, 356; 
at second battle of Bull Run, 357. 

Popham, George, attempts to found set- 
tlement *in Maine, 52. 

Popular Sovereignty, 321, 323, 324, 327. 

Population of the United States, 96, 214, 
279-280, 340, 429-430; movement of, 
see Selilement and West. 

Populist Party, rise of, 410-41 1. 

Port Bill, Boston, 151. 



en 



TJic Index 



Port Gibson, battle of. 363. 

Port Hudson, surrender of. 364. 

Port Royal, Acadia, founded, 17; captured 
by Phips. 124; renamed Annapolis, 124. 

Port Royal, S. C., capture of. 332. 

Porter, Commodore David D (t/.), at the 
siege of Vicksburg, 362-363. 

Porto Rico, discovered by Columbus, 12; 
Spain in. 447; General Miles in, 453; 
transferred to United States, 454; educa- 
tion in. 455; government of. 460. 

Portsmouth, N. H., founded, 70. 

Portsmouth, R. I., founded, 75-76. 

Portuguese, early explorations, 4-5, 11-12. 

Powhatan, 28. 

Prescott, Colonel William (.1.), at the bat- 
tle of Bunker HiU, I5H. 

President of the United States, making of, 
209-210, 234-235. 

"President," American frigate, defeats the 
•' Little Belt," 245. 

Presidential Elections, see Eleclions. 

Presidential Succession, law of, 407- 

Press, first in America, 63-64; freedom of, 
no, 2.i2. See also Newspapers. 

Price, General Sterling (C), 353- 

Prideaux, General (£.), 131 

Primary Elections, Direct, 470. 

Princeton, battle of, 160-170. 

Princeton University, founded, 108. 

Printing, see Press and Newspapers. 

Prisons, 219, 283. 

Privateers, 184, 251. 345-346. 

Proclamations, of neutrality. 228; of emanci- 
pation, 358-359; of amncst>, 386, 387. 

Proctor, Colonel Henry A. (£.), at battle 
of the River Raisin, 251; at the battle 
of the Thames, 252. 

Progressives, 468, 473. 

Prohibition, its growth, 474, 483- 

Prohibition Party, 397, 404, 409. 466, 468, 
474- 

"Prophet," brother of Tecumseh, at the 
battle of Tippecanoe, 247. 

Proprietary Colonies, see Colonies 

Protection, see Tariff. 

Providence, R. I., settled. 75. 

Public Lands, relinquished by the states, 
198, 203-204; beginning of system of, 
203-204; sales of. 275. 

Pulaski, Count Casimir, joins the Amer- 
ican army. 171; killed at Savannah, 186. 

Pulaski, Fort, 352. 

Puritans, in England, 35-36; in the South- 
cm colonies, 36, 38, 43-44; their origin 
and ideas, 53-54; found the Bay Colony. 
57-59; government of, 59-63; and edu- 
cation. 63-64; in Connecticut, 70-74. 

Putnam, General Israel (.4.), at battle of 
Bunker Hill, 158. 

QUAKERS, in the Southern colonies, 38, 
47; in Massachusetts, 65-66; in New 
Nctherland, 81; origin and doctrines of, 
89-90; settle Pennsylvania, 92-95; and 
slavery, 220, 300. 

Quebec, established, 17. 117; expedition 
a^ unst, 124; fall of, I3I-I33- 

Quebec Act, 152. 

Queen Anne's War, 122-124. 

Queenstown Heights, battle of, 2 

*'Quit-rent," 95. 



RADICAL Republicans, 367, 368. 

Radio, 494. 495. 

Railroads, beginnings of. in America, 263- 
264; growth of, 291; to the West, 415- 
417; increase of, in the South, 429-430; 
strikes on, 440-441; under government 
control. 482. 

Raisin, River, battle of, 251. 

Raleigh, Sir Walter, portrait, 20; his ex- 
peditions and colonies, 19-20. 

Ranching Industry, 423. 

Randolph, Edmund, Attorney-General, 222. 

"Ranger," Paul Jones's ship, 185. 

Rawdon, Lord (£.), at battle of Hobkirk's 
Hill, 191. 

Reciprocity, 409. 

Reconstruction Period, 386-394. 

Red Cross Society, 449, 473. 476, 485. 

Referendum, Initiative and, 470. 

Regicides, 37, 73- 

Regulating Act, 151. 

"Regulators," 147. 

Reid, Whitelaw, candidate for the Vice- 
Presidency. 411. 

Religion, in the colonies, 36, 41-45, 47, 31, 
54-55. 59. 62, 65, 81, 91, 110-113. 133: 
in 1790, 219; in the West, 203, 284; 
and the slavery question, 284. 

Rent Day on the Hudson, 101-102. 

Representative Government, in the colo- 
nies, 32-33. 57, 58. 60-61. 72. 73. 76, 85, 
93. 133. 153-154; under the Confedera- 
tion, 198-206; under the Constitution, 
207-21 1. 

Representatives, House of, terms and elec- 
tion of members, 208; Presidential 
elections in, 234-235, 269; Speaker of, 
246 and 246. note i. 

RepubUcan Party, rise of, 325-326; and 
the Civil War, 366-367, 368-369; and 
reconstruction. 389-390, 396; and the 
silver question, 412. 414-415. 

Republicans, Je£fersonian, 225, 228, 233- 
234. 256. 

Resaca, Ga., battle of. 372. 

Resaca de la Palma, battle of, 307. 

Reservations, Indian, 424, 426-427. 

Resources, Conservation of Natural, 465. 

Resumption of Specie Payment, 400. 

Returning Boards, 401-402. 

Revere, Paul, courier of the Revolution, 
150. 154. 155- 

Review of Union Troops, 379. 

Revolution, American, 136-197; causes of, 
136-155; early battles of, 155-162; 
movement for independence, 162-165; 
campaign in the Nliddle States, 165- 
180; treaty with France. 177; winning 
our first western boundary, 180-183; 
irregular warfare on land and sea, 183- 
i86; the war in the South, 186-193; 
the crowning victory, 193-195; the 
treaty of peace, 195-196. 

Rhode Island, founded. 62, 75-76; and 
the New England Confederation, 65; 
charter, 76; and the Constitution, 206, 
212; adopts a new state constitution, 
279. 

Rice Culture, in the colonies, 48-49, 52, 1 15. 

Richmond, Va., capital of the Confederacy, 
342; McClellan's campaign against, 
354-356; capture of, 376-377- 



TJic Index 



cm 



Rich Mountain, battle of, 343. 

Rio Grande, disputed boundary, 306, 311. 

Ripley, General E. W. (.1.), 253. 

River Raisin, battle of, 251. 

Roads, see Cumberland Road and National 
Road. 

Roanoke Island, capture of, 352. 

Robertson, James, settles Tennessee, 181. 

Roberval, French explorer, 17. 

Robinson, Charles, free state leader, 323. 

Robinson, John, Pilgrim pastor, 54, ss- 

Rochambeau, Count, at siege of Yorktown, 
193-194- 

Rockingham, Lord, prime minister, 145. 

"Rock of Chickamauga," 365. 

Roentgen or X-Rays, 438. 

Rolfe, John, marries Pocahontas, 28. 

Roosevelt, Theodore, portrait, 459; leads 
the "Rough Riders" in Cuba, 452; elect- 
ed Vice-President, 458-459; succeeds to 
the Presidency, 459; reelected, 464. 

Rosecrans, General William S. ([/.), at 
second battle of Corinth, 353; succeeds 
Buell, 353; at battle of Murfreesboro 
(Stone River), 353; at battles of Chicka- 
mauga and Chattanooga, 365. 

Ross, General Robert (£.), attacks Balti- 
more, 253-254. 

"Rough Riders," 452. 

Royal Grants, see Grants, Royal. 

Russia, and the Oregon region, 267; and 
the Civil War, 344; Alaska purchased 
from, 395- 

Rutgers College, founded, 108. 

Rutledge, John, in the Stamp Act Con- 
gress, 143; in the first Continental 
Congress, 153; in the Constitutional 
Convention, 207. 

SACKETT'S Harbor, attack on, 253. 

St. Augustine, Fla., founded by the Span- 
ish, 16; attacked by Oglethorpe, 51, 52. 

St. Clair, General Arthur, defeated by the 
Indians, 226. 

St. Lawrence River, discovered, 16; region 
of, settled by the French, 17. 

St. Leger, Colonel Barry (£.), expedition 
of, 172, 174- 

St. Louis, Mo., in 1830, 280, 281; in 1870, 
417; exposition at, 464-463. 

St. Mary's, Md., founding of, 42; rivalry 
with Annapolis, 43-44. 

St. PhiUp, Fort, 352. 

"Salary Grab," 399. 

Salem, Mass., settlement of, 58; witch- 
craft craze in, 11 2-1 13. 

Salmon Falls, N.H., Indian massacre at, 123. 

Salvation Army, 484. 

Sampson, Admiral William T., 451. 

San Antonio, Mexico, battle of, 310. 

Sanitary Commission, 379-380. 

San Jacinto, battle of, 304. 

San Juan, battle of, 452. 

Santa Anna, Mexican general, 303, 304, 
308, 310. 

Santa Fe, founded by the Spanish, 16. 

Santiago de Cuba, capture of, 451-452. 

Saratoga, battles of, 175-176. 

Savannah, settled, 51; captured by the 
■ British, 186; taken by Sherman, 375. 

Saybrook, Fort, 71. 

"Scalawags," 39. 



Schenectady, N. Y., Indian massacre at, 
122-123. 

Schley, Commodore W. S., 451. 

Schofield, General John McA. (U.), at 
battle of Franklin, 375. 

Schools, see Education. 

Schuyler, General PhiUp (A.), hinders 
Burgoyne's march, 173, 174; succeeded 
by Gates, 175. 

Scotch Highlanders, in the colonies, 47, 48, 
52; in the Revolutionary War, i8i. 

Scotch-Irish, in the colonies, 47, 48, 97-98. 

Scott, Dred, 326-327. 

Scott, General Winfield (A.), in the War 
of 1812, 253; ordered to Charleston by 
Jackson, 299; captures City of Mexico, 
309-310; candidate for the Presidency, 
320-321; in command of Union forces, 
341-342. 

Scrooby, 54. 

Search, Right of, 241, 243, 246. 

Secession, first threats of, 299, 314; of 
South Carolina, 332-333; of other 
Southern States, 333. 

Sedition Laws, aUen and, 232, 233. 

Selective Draft Law, 479. 

Self-government, see Representative Gov- 
ernment. 

Seminary Ridge, 360, 361. 

Seminole Indians, 259, 426. 

Senate, United States, formation of, 208; 
workings of, 210-2 11. 

Senators, Election of, Iviii, 469. 

Separatists, 53, 54, 64. 

"Serapis" and "Bon Homme Richard," 
battle of, 185. 

Settlement, movement of, 181, 203-204, 
214-21S, 226, 257-258, 282, 313-314. 
322, 415. See also West. 

"Seven Days' Battle," 355-356. 

Seventeenth Amendment, 469. 

Seven Years' War, 129. 

Sevier, John, settles Tennessee, 181. 

Seward, Wilham H., portrait, 337; and 
the Compromise of 1850, 315, 317; 
Secretary of State under Lincoln, 337. 

Sewing Machine, invention of, 290. 

Seymour, Horatio, governor of New York, 
367; candidate for the Presidency, 391. 

Shackleton, Captain, 468. 

Shadrach, fugitive slave, 319. 

Shaffer, General William R., commands 
army in Cuba, 452. 

"Shannon," English frigate, defeats the 
"Chesapeake," 250. 

Sharpsburg (Antietam), battle of, 357. 

Shays's Rebellion, 202, 206. 

"Shenandoah," Confederate cruiser, 374. 

Shenandoah Valley, 354, 355, 37 1- 

Sheppard Prohibition Amendment, 483. 

Sheridan, General Philip H. (U), at bat- 
tles of Winchester and Cedar Creek, 
371-372; cuts off Lee's army, 376-377; 
takes Five Forks, 377; and the French 
in Mexico, 394. 

Sherman Act, 410; repeal of, 412-413. 

Sherman, John, portrait, 410; author of 
the Sherman Act, 410. 

Sherman, Roger, portrait, 208; in the first 
Continental Congress, 153; and the 
Declaration of Independence, 164; in 
the Constitutional Convention, 207. 



CIV 



The hidc.r 



Sherman, General William T. (f/.), por- 
trait, 374; in the battles around Chatta- 
nooga, 36s, 366; in command in the West, 
370; campaign against Atlanta, 372; his 
march to the coast, 374-375; at battle 
of Benton ville, 376; receives surrender 
of Johnston, 377- 

Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing), battle of, 3S0- 

Shipbuildmg Industry, 113-114, 201. 437. 
477-47H. 

Silk Culture, 52. 

Silver, discovery of, in the West, 41S, 417- 
418. 

Silver Money, free coinage of, 411, 414, 
458. Stc also Bimetallism and Currency. 

Sioux Indians, 425-426. 

Six Nations, see Five Nations. 

Sixteenth Amendment, 469. 

Slater, John F., his gift for the education of 
negroes, 432. 

Slater, Samuel, portrait, 216; establishes 
first "factory" in the United States, 216. 

Slavery, beginnings of, in America, 34; in 
the colonies, 48, 96, 114, and the Ordi- 
nance of 1787, 204; and the Constitu- 
tion, 208-209; in 1790, 219-220; and 
the Missouri Compromise, 259-260; 
abolition of, 299-302, 303, 318, 388; and 
the Drcd Scott Decision, 326; Lincoln's 
attitude toward, 33(>. 357-359- 

Slidell, John, Confederate commissioner, 

346- 

Sloughter, royal governor, 85. 

Smith, General Kirby (C), surrender of, 
3-8. 

Smith, Captain John, portrait, 27; saves 
Jamestown, 28-29; and Pocahontas, 
28, note i; explores and names New 
England, 52-53- 

Smith, Joseph, Mormon leader, 282. 

Smuggling, 116, 137. I39. 140- 

Social Classes, in European countries, 14; ni 
the colonies, 31. 49, 57, 70, 90, 98-99, 136- 

Socialist Party, 458, 464, 466, 468, 474- 

"Sons of Liberty," 141-142, 146- 

South, and North, differences between, 
294; attacks the tariff, 295-299; and 
the abolitionists, 299-302; seeks slave 
territory, 259-260, 282-283, 303-310, 
321-324; secedes, 332-334; conditions 
in, 340-341, 380-381; reconstruction 
of, 386-394; the new, 428-434- 

South America, discovered and explored, 
11-12, 15; revolutions in, 267, 447. 

South Carolina, early settlers of, 48; ne- 
groes in, 48, 96; in the Revolution, 161- 
162, 186-187; and the slavery quostion, 
209; nullification in, 298-299; secedes, 
332-333- . . , 

South Dakota, admitted, 418. 

Spain, Columbus in, 8-9; and the Line of 
Demarcation, 12; goverimient and in- 
stitutions of, 13. 14. 447; her claims in 
America, 14-15; founds settlements, 
16, 17; makes war on England, 177; 
and the treaty of peace, 195-196; se- 
cures region west of the Mississippi, 217- 
218; sells Florida, 259; and the South 
American republics, 267; in Cuba, 283, 
446-448; war with, 446-456. 

Spanish-American War, 446-456. 



"Specie Circular," 275-276. 

Specie Payment, resumption of, 400. 

"Spoils System," 273-274, 405. 

Spottsylvania, battle of, 370. 

"Squatter Sovereignty," see Popular Sov- 
ereignty. 

Stage, overland, 415. 

Stamp Act, 141-145. 

Standish, Miles, 56. 

Stanton, Edwin McM., Secretary of War 
under President Johnson, 390. 

Stanwix, Fort, 174-175. 

Stark General John (.4.), at battle of 
Bunker Hill, 158; at battle of Ben- 
nington, 173-174. 

"Stars and Bars," 334. 

"Stars and Stripes," see Flags. 

" Star-Spangled Baimer," composition of, 
254, note I. 

"Starving Time," in Jamestown, 29. 

State Banks, see Banks. 

State Debts, see Debts. 

States, under the Articles of Confederation, 
198-199; trade between, 201, 407; cede 
lands to Congress, 203-204; representa- 
tion of, in Congress, 208. 

States' Rights, doctrine of, 225, 233, 297. 

State Sovereignty, 198-199. See also 
Stales' Rights. 

Steam, use of, 216, 240, 260-261, 263-264, 
289-290. 

Steamboat, invention of, 217; develop- 
ment of, 260-261; 291-292, 434. 

Steel, 436-437. 

Stephens, Alexander H., portrait, 334; 
Vice-President of the Confederacy, 334. 

Stephenson, George, inventor of the loco- 
motive, 264. 

Steuben, Baron, portrait, 179; his services 
to the Continental army, 178-179, 188; 
in the South, 192. 

Stevens, Thaddeus, portrait, 389. 

Stevenson, Adlai E., elected Vice-President, 
411. 

Stillwater, battle of, 175. 

Stone River (Murfreesboro), battle of, 353- 
354- 

Stony Point, captured by Wayne. 183. 

Stowe, Harriet Beecher, portrait, 320; 
author of Uncle Tom's Cabin. 320. 

Strict Construction, 225, 238, 256, 270. 

Strikes, labor, 440-442. 

Stuart, General J. E. B. (C), cavalry lead- 
er, 355. 

Stuyvesant, Peter, Dutch governor, 80-83, 

86. 

Submarine Cable, see Cable. 

Submarine Warfare, 475, 480. 

Suez Canal, 466. 

Suffrage, 73, 208, 221, 271, 389, 469, 470, 
486. 

" Sugar Act," 137. 

Sullivan, General John (.1.), his expedi- 
tion against the Six Nations, 180-181. 

Sumner, Charles, assault on, 324. 

Sumner, General E. V. ({/.), in Kansas, 
323; at the battle of Fair Oaks, 354. 

Sumter, Fort, 334, 337-338, 376. 

" Sumter," Confederate privateer, 346. 

Sumter, Thomas (A.), revolutionary leader, 
186-187, 191. 

Supreme Court, see Courts. 



TIic Index 



cv 



Surplus, distribution of, 275, 408. 
Swedes, settle Delaware, 85-86. 

TAFT, William H., appointed governor of 
the Philippines, 457; elected President, 
466; portrait, 466. 

Tanks, in European War, 480. 

Tariff, Hamilton's, 223; of 1816, 257, 295; 
the political parties and, 270; of 1824, 
296; of 1828, 296; the South attacks, 
295-296; Clay's Compromise, 299; 
during the Civil War, 383; new bill, 469. 
See also special tariff bills. 

Tarleton, Colonel Sir Banastre (£.), at 
battle of the Cowpens, 190-191. 

Taxation, in the colonies, 36, 57, 60, 67, 
80, 93, 134; leads to the Revolution, 
139-150; under the Confederation, 199, 
201; discussion of, in the Constitutional 
Convention, 208-209; by the Govern- 
ment, 223, 224, 383, 384-385, 408, 413, 
See also Tariff. 

Taylor, Zachary, portrait, 307; ordered 
to the Rio Grande, 306-307; his vic- 
tories, 307-309; candidate for the 
Presidency, 308-309, 312; elected Presi- 
dent, 312; and the admission of Cali- 
fornia, 313; death of, 318. 

Tea, tax on, 14s, 148, 149-150. 

Tecumseh, Shawnee chief, joins British, 
248; killed at battle of Thames, 252. 

Telegraph, invention of, 292-293; cable, 
293-294; wireless, 438, 467, 495. 

Telephone, invention, of, 438; wireless, 495. 

Temperance Movement, origin of, 283- 
284: and the Prohibition party, 397; 
development of, 431, 474. 

Tennessee, settlement of, 181; admitted, 
257; secedes, 340; the Civil War in, 
350, 365, 366. 

Tenure of Office Act, 300. 

Territorial Expansion, 237, 258-259, 306, 
311. 395i 454. 460-462. 

Territories of the United States, begin- 
nings, 203-205; the slavery question, 
204, 259-260, 310, 313. 315. 317. 321, 
326-327, 331; a new kind of, 460. 

Texas, becomes a republic, 303-304; ad- 
mission of, 283; 304-306, secedes, 333. 

Thames River, battle of, 252. 

Thayer, Eli, sends free-state emigrants to 
Kansas, 322. 

Thomas, General George H. (the "Rock 
of Chickamauga") (U.), portrait, 365; in 
the war with Mexico, 309; wins battle 
of Mill Spring, 349; at battle of Chick- 
amauga, 36s; at battle of Missionary 
Ridge, 366; at battle of Nashville, 375. 

Thrift Stamps, 477. 

Ticonderoga, Fort, attacked by the Eng- 
lish, 130; abandoned by the French, 
131; taken by Ethan Allen, 160; cap- 
tured by Burgoyne, 173. 

Tilden, Samuel jf., portrait, 400; candidate 
for the Presidency, 400-402. 

Tippecanoe, battle of, 247-248; and the 
Harrison campaign, 277. 

Tobacco, introduced into England, 20; 
in the colonies, 31, 52, 114. 

Toleration, see Religion. 

Topeka Constitution, 323. 

Tories, 145, i6i, 165, 173, 180, 186, 189,218. 



Toscanelli, Italian geographer, sends map 

to Columbus, 7. 

Town Meetings, in Plymouth colony, 57; 
abolished by Andros, 67; and the Regu- 
lating Act, 151. 

Trade, see Commerce. 

Trades and Occupations, in public schools, 
473. 

Training Day, 106-107. 

Transportation, in the colonies, 117; de- 
velopment of the means of, 216-218, 
240, 260-264, 291-292, 434-435. 437. 

Transportation Act, 151. 

Travel, see Tiansportalion, 

Treasury, United States (Independent), 
established, 276; opposed by Clay, 278- 
279; and the national banks, 384; re- 
sumes specie payment, 400; surplus in, 
408; silver reserve, 403, 410; gold re- 
serve, 412, 413. 

Treat, royal governor, 74. 

Treaties, between the Virginians and 
Cromwell, 37; with the Indians, 56, 
77-78, 93-94. 126, 226; of Utrecht, 
124; of 1763, 133; between France and 
the United States, 177; of peace with 
England, 195-196; John Jay's, 229- 
230; of Ghent, 255; with Japan, 292; 
Webster- Ashburton, 306; of Guadalupe 
Hidalgo, 311; of peace with Spain, 453- 
454; of peace with Germany, 487-489. 

Trent Affair, 346. 

Trenton, battle of, 168; Washington's 
reception at, 221. 

Tulane, Paul, endows college in Louisiana, 
432. 

Turks, close routes to India, 3; their re- 
ligion, 3; take Constantinople, 3. 

Tuscarora Indians, 126, note i. 

"Tweed Ring," 401. 

Tyler, John, portrait, 304; becomes 
President, 279; opposes the Whigs, 279; 
and the Texas question, 304, 306. 

Typewriter, invention of, 438. 

UNCLE TOM'S CABIN, 320. 

"Underground Railroad," 319. 

Union, Albany plan of, 126-127; prepara- 
tion of the colonies for, 135; struggle 
for a permanent, 198-213. 

Union Pacific Railroad, building of, 416. 

Unions, Labor, 439-440. 

United States, formation of, 163-164; 
under the Articles of Confederation, 
198-206; adopt the Constitution, 211- 
213. 

Universities, see Colleges. 

University Extension, 445-446. 

Utah, settled by the Mormons, 282; or- 
ganized as a territory, 318; silver in, 
415; driving the golden spike, 416; ad- 
mitted, 418; woman suffrage in, 470. 

Utrecht, treaty of, 124. 

VAIL, Alfred, inventor, 292. 

Valley Forge, Washington's winter at, 

177-179. 
Van Buren, Martin, portrait, 277; elected 

President, 276; secures Independent 

Treasury, 276; candidate of Free Soil 

party, 312. 



CVl 



TJic Index 



Van Dorn, General Earl (C), 353- 

Vane, Sir Henry, royal governor, 62. 

Van Rensselaer, Dutch patroon, 79. 

Van Rensselaer, General Stephen (.4.). at 
battle of Queenstown Heights, 248. 

Venezuelan Dispute, 414. 

Venice, ancient trade routes from, 3. 

Vera Cruz, battle of, 309; occupation of, 471. 

Vermont, admitted, 257-258. 

Verplanck's Point, fortification of, 183. 

Verrazano, Giovanni da, Italian explorer 
under the French flag, 16. 

Vespucci, Amerigo, portrait, 12; his ex- 
plorations, I i-i 2; America named for, 12. 

Veto Power, 210. 

Vice-President, method of electing. 210. 

Vicksburg, Grant's campaign around, 362- 
363 ; siege and surrender of, 363-364- 

ViUa, 471. 474. , , ^ 

Vincennes, founded, 121; taken by George 
Rogers Clark, 182. 

Vinland, visited by the Northmen, 2. 

Virgin Islands, Ixxii. 

Virginia, origin of the name, 9; charters 
of. 25, 30, 31, 3S; settlement of, 25-41; 
her struggles with Maryland, 43-4S; so- 
cial life in, loo-ioi; leads movement 
for independence, 167; cedes western 
lands, 198, 204; and the Constitutional 
Convention, 206, 207; her efforts for 
peace, 335; secedes, 34°; the Civil War 
in, 342, 354-357, 369-372, 376-377- 

" Virginia Plan," 207. 

Virginia Resolutions, 232-233. 

Viviani, FraiK c sends, 476. 

Vocational Education, 473. 

Vote, see Suffrage. 



WADSWORTH, Captain, hides the Con- 
necticut charter, 74. 

Wagner, Fort, 376. 

Wall Street, origin of. 81. 

Walpole, Robert, prime minister of Eng- 
land, 124. 

Wampanoag Indians, 66. 

War for the Union, 337-385- 

War gardens, 483. 

War Savings Stamps, 477- 

War with Mexico, 306-311. 

War with Spain, 446-456. 

War with Germany, 475-489. 

Ward, Nathaniel, author of the Body of 
Liberties, 63. 

Warner, Seth, at battle of Bennington, 
173-174. 

Warren, General Gouverneur K. (J7.), at 
battle of Gettysburg, 361. 

Warren, General Joseph (.4.), at battle of 
Bunker Hill, 158, 159- 

"War Tax," 472. 

Washington, organized as a territory, 280; 
gold and silver in, 417-418. 

Washington, D. C, capital of the United 
States, 235; burning of, 253-254; 
threatened by the Confederates, 341. 37 1. 

Washington, Fort, 166, 167. 

Washington, George, portrait, frontis- 
piece; sent to the West, 1 25, 126; |n 
Braddock's expedition, 127-128; in 
expedition against Fort Duquesne, 130- 
131; in the first Continental Congress, 



I S3; made commander-in-chief, ISO- 
160; drives British from Boston, 161; 
his campaign around New York. 166- 
168; in New Jersey, 167-171; at battles 
of the Brandywine and Germantown, 
171-172; at Valley Forge, 177-178; 
at battle of Monmouth, 179-180; at 
Yorktown, 193-195; takes leave of the 
army, 196-197; favors a strong govern- 
ment, 202; made president of the Con- 
stitutional Convention, 207; President 
of the United States, 221-230; es- 
tablishes policy of neutrality, 228; death 
of. 230. 

Washington, Colonel William (.1.), at the 
battle of the Cowpens, 190-191. 

Watertown, Mass., settlement of, 59; de- 
mands representation, 60. 

Wayne, Anthony ("Mad Anthony") (.1.), 
captures Stony Point, 183; in the South. 
192; defeats the Indians in the West, 226. 

Wayne, Fort, 226. 

Weaver, General James B., candidate for 
the Prcsidencv, 404, 411. 

Webster, Daniel, portrait, 297; and the 
tariflF, 296; his debate %vith Hayne, 297- 
298; and the Whig party, 309, 321; his 
Seventh of March speech, 317; death of, 

321- 

Webster-Ashburton Treaty, 306. 

Wesley, Charles and John, 51. 

West, the French in, 117-121, 124-128; 
in the Revolution, 181-182; govern- 
ment in, 204-205; movement of settle- 
ment to, 214-215. 226-227, 257-258. 
260, 279-282, 313-314. 322, 41S-420; 
exploration of, 238-239. 

West India Company, 78. 

West Indies, explored by Columbus, 11; 
claimed by Spain. 14; trade with. 114, 
137. 184, 201, 229. 241; Danish, 474- 

West Point, fortification of, 183; betrayed 
by Arnold, 183-184. 

West Virginia, admitted, 340; protected 
by McClellan, 343. 

Western Lands, see Public Lands. 

"Western Reserve," 204. 

Whalley, Edward, regicide, 73. 

Whig Party, origin of, 269-270; win elec- 
tion of 1840, 277-278; opposed by 
Tyler, 279; in the campaign of 1844, 
304, 305; win election of 1848, 312; 
defeated in 1852, 320; division of, 325. 

Whigs, in England and the colonies, 14s. 
177, 195- 

Whisky Rebellion, 225-226. 

"Whisky Ring," 400. 

White House Landing, McClellan at, 354. 
355. 

White Plains, battle of, 167. 

Whitman, Marcus, leads settlers to the 
Oregon region, 305. 

Whitney, Eli, inventor, 220. 

Whittier, John Greenleaf, 265-266. 

"Wildcat" Banks, sec Banks. 

Wilderness, battle of the, 370. 

Wilkes, Captain Charles iU.), searches the 
"Trent," 3.\<>. 

William and Mary, English rulers, 45. 68, 
85, 122; college of, 40-41. 109. 

Williams, Roger, banished from Massa- 
chusetts, 61-62; founds Rhode Island, 



TJie Index 



evil 



61-62, 75-76; keeps Indians from war- 
fare, 71; secures a charter from Parlia- 
ment, 76; establishes religious tolera- 
tion, 76. 

Williamsburg, Va., In 1750, 96; gover- 
nor's reception at, loo-ioi. 

Wilmot Proviso, 310-311. 

Wilson, James, portrait, 212; and the 
Constitution, 207, 213. 

Wilson, William L., author of the Wilson 
Tarifif Bill, 413- 

Wilson, Woodrow, portrait, 469; elected 
President, 191 2, 469; re-elected, 1916, 
474; states war aims, 487. 

Wilson s Creek, battle of, 349. 

Winchester, General (.4.), defeated at the 
River Raisin, 251. 

Winchester, battle of, 371. 

Winslow, Edward, Pilgrim governor, 56. 

Winthrop, Governor John, portrait, 58; 
his ideas of government, 61. 

Winthrop, John, Jr., 70-71, 73. 

Wireless Telephone, 494, 495. 

Wisconsin, admitted, 283. 

Witchcraft Craze, in Salem, 112-113. 

Wolfe, General James (£.), portrait, 132; 
in expedition against Louisburg, 130; 
takes Quebec, 131-133; death of, 132-133. 

Woman Suffrage, 469, 470, 486. 

Woman's War Work, 486. 



Wood, Leonard, portrait, 460; governor- 
general of Cuba, 455, 460. 

Worden, Lieutenant John L. (t/.), com- 
mander of the " Monitor," 348. 

World's Fair, of 1853, 290-291; at Chi- 
cago, 443. 

Wright Brothers, 467. 

Writs of Assistance, 139-140. 

Wyoming, woman suffrage in, 470. 

Wyoming Valley, Indian massacre at. 180. 

X-RAYS, 438. 

X. Y. Z. Affair, 231. 

YALE UNIVERSITY, founded. 108. 
Yeardley, Sir George, royal governor. 31- 

32. 
York (Toronto), taken by the Americans. 

253. 
York, Duke of, and the colony of New 

York, 83-89. 
Yorktown, siege of, 193-195; McClellan's 

march to, 354. 
Young, Brigham, Mormon leader, 282. 
Y.M.C.A., 473, 484. 
Y.W.C.A., 484. 

ZENGER, Peter, editor, no. 
Zufii Indians, 16. 

sewed 



IBRARY OF CONGRESS 




